Come in and learn something.

[Turtle]

Parsec: Is a unit of measure equal to just slightly more than 3.25 light years (about 19 trillion miles). Parsec is a combination of two words, parallax and arcsecond.

So then what is a parallax? It is the perceived movement of an object traveling through space as seen from a fixed position on earth. For example if you took a pen and held it in front of your face, and quickly opened and closed your left eye and then right eye, the perceived horizontal movement (or jump) of the pen is a parallax. The further the object the smaller the parallax, the closer the object the greater the parallax. This is used to measure the distance to stars and is preformed using photographs of stars from an observatory. Six months later when the Earth has traveled halfway around its orbit a second photograph is taken. By measuring the distance the object "jumped" scientists can calculate the arc seconds of the parallax to reveal the distance.

What is an arc second? Think of it as a ruler. If you drew a circle and bisected the circle evenly by 180 lines…they would form 360 equal sections. Each section is an arc. Now further bisect each arc with 60 evenly spaced lines..Arc minutes. Now bisect each arc minute with 60 more lines..you get arc seconds. Think of it as going from meters, to centimeters to millimeters.

[Digital_Trauma]

poptarts are very underrated, especially the brown sugar-cinnamon ones

[wes mantooth]

Batman can leave a store without Robin.

[Turtle]

poptarts are very underrated, especially the brown sugar-cinnamon ones

Batman can leave a store without Robin.

You two go stand in the hall.

[generoso]

i think your overdoesing on toast now....:action-sm

[MrBogey]

Ok....now when are you going to teach me something I didn't already learn in junior high?

[Jef Leppard]

post

[ih8Uboo-boo]

Parsec: Is a unit of measure equal to just slightly more than 3.25 light years (about 19 trillion miles). Parsec is a combination of two words, parallax and arcsecond.

So then what is a parallax? It is the perceived movement of an object traveling through space as seen from a fixed position on earth. For example if you took a pen and held it in front of your face, and quickly opened and closed your left eye and then right eye, the perceived horizontal movement (or jump) of the pen is a parallax. The further the object the smaller the parallax, the closer the object the greater the parallax. This is used to measure the distance to stars and is preformed using photographs of stars from an observatory. Six months later when the Earth has traveled halfway around its orbit a second photograph is taken. By measuring the distance the object "jumped" scientists can calculate the arc seconds of the parallax to reveal the distance.

What is an arc second? Think of it as a ruler. If you drew a circle and bisected the circle evenly by 180 lines…they would form 360 equal sections. Each section is an arc. Now further bisect each arc with 60 evenly spaced lines..Arc minutes. Now bisect each arc minute with 60 more lines..you get arc seconds. Think of it as going from meters, to centimeters to millimeters.

http://home.comcast.net/%7Erefbuz/ScannersExplodingHead.gif

[Beeman99]

Bee's are responsible for 1/3rd the food we eat.

Canada is the second largest county in the world

our dollar is damn near worth as much as the USA's now

the beaver is our national animal

a one dollar coin is the loonie, a two dollar coin is the toonie

Lacrosse is our national sport

The leader of our country is the Prime Minister, the leaders of our provinces and territories are Premiers

[THE FEZ MAN]

it takes a minimum of 90 days @ 70 degrees fareinheight and 50% humidity for a polyisocyanate catalyzed automotive clear coat to be 80 percent cured and 90% UV stabilized

[umo]

That is a pronoun sometimes used instead of This. If you don't know what this is...that don't mean shit.

[tstlkevanilla]

it takes a minimum of 90 days @ 70 degrees fareinheight and 50% humidity for a polyisocyanate catalyzed automotive clear coat to be 80 percent cured and 90% UV stabilized
It takes a minimum of 0.2 seconds for any wackbagger to realize this thread is shit. Or was it just me?

[umo]

You can shake it,
You can squeeze it.
You can beat it against the wall.
But ya gotta put it back in your pants before the last drop will fall.

http://i4.photobucket.com/albums/y103/umo/5.jpg

[yellowstonesteve]

http://i82.photobucket.com/albums/j267/richtb2/black-ballsillusion.jpg

[BaLZaC~308]

http://i82.photobucket.com/albums/j267/richtb2/black-ballsillusion.jpg

What the fuck is that supposed to teach me??

[yellowstonesteve]

What the fuck is that supposed to teach me??


not to smoke pot, or you'll end up spending all day staring at the silly illusion picture

[fuckwit]

America:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Northwoods

http://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=92662

http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/news/20010430/

download the pdf of the actual documents. its a fun read.

[Turtle]

Bee's are responsible for 1/3rd the food we eat.

Canada is the second largest county in the world

our dollar is damn near worth as much as the USA's now

the beaver is our national animal

a one dollar coin is the loonie, a two dollar coin is the toonie

Lacrosse is our national sport

The leader of our country is the Prime Minister, the leaders of our provinces and territories are Premiers

Lacrosse, that was a surprise.


Why is the sky blue? The sky is blue because of a process called Rayleigh scattering. This process involves the scattering of light off of molecules in the atmosphere. When light moves through the atmosphere, most of its wavelengths are able to simply pass through esp longer wavelengths. Shorter wavelengths, however, are less capable of passing through and are instead absorbed by the gas molecules in the atmosphere. Gas molecules are absorb all colors of light.The sky is blue because blue light is more readily absorbed, while other wavelengths pass through easily.

[Buster H]

It takes a minimum of 0.2 seconds for any wackbagger to realize this thread is shit. Or was it just me?

just you

[Jimbo929]

Learnin is for queers

[Mommadeez4u]

My ship is the Millenium Falcon; she's the ship that made the Kessler Run in under 5 parsecs.

[Buster H]

There was a time when reading wasn't just for fags. And neither was writing. People wrote books and movies. Movies with stories, that made you care about whose ass it was and why it was farting. And I believe that time can come again!

[Hudson]

Jacky Nic helped write "Little Shop of Horrors. Roger Ebert helped write Valley of the Dolls.

[Turtle]

It takes a minimum of 0.2 seconds for any wackbagger to realize this thread is shit. Or was it just me?

Mood swings, tender breasts, a swollen abdomen, food cravings, fatigue, irritability and depression. If you experience some or all of these problems in the days before your monthly period, you may have premenstrual syndrome (PMS).

An estimated three of every four menstruating women experience some form of premenstrual syndrome. These problems are more likely to trouble women between their late 20s and early 40s, and they tend to recur in a predictable pattern. Yet the physical and emotional changes you experience with premenstrual syndrome may be more or less intense with each menstrual cycle.

Still, you don't have to let these problems control your life. In recent years, much has been learned about premenstrual syndrome. Treatments and lifestyle adjustments can help you reduce or manage the signs and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome.

For many women the signs and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome are an uncomfortable and unwelcome part of their monthly menstrual cycle. The most common physical and emotional signs and symptoms associated with premenstrual syndrome include:

Weight gain from fluid retention
Abdominal bloating
Breast tenderness
Tension or anxiety
Depressed mood
Crying spells
Mood swings and irritability or anger
Appetite changes and food cravings
Trouble falling asleep (insomnia)
Joint or muscle pain
Headache
Fatigue

Although the list of potential signs and symptoms is long, most women with premenstrual syndrome experience only a few of these problems.

For some women, the physical pain and emotional stress are severe enough to affect their daily routines and activities. For most of these women, symptoms disappear as the menstrual period begins.

But for some women with premenstrual syndrome, symptoms are so severe they're considered disabling. This form of PMS has its own psychiatric designation — premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). PMDD is a severe form of premenstrual syndrome with symptoms including severe depression, feelings of hopelessness, anger, anxiety, low self-esteem, difficulty concentrating, irritability and tension. A number of women with severe PMS may have an underlying psychiatric disorder.

Exactly what causes premenstrual syndrome is unknown, but several factors may contribute to the condition. Cyclic changes in hormones seem to be an important cause, because signs and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome change with hormonal fluctuations and also disappear with pregnancy and menopause.

Chemical changes in the brain also may be involved. One clue to the cause may be traced to fluctuations of serotonin, a brain chemical (neurotransmitter) that is thought to play a crucial role in mood states, especially depression. Insufficient amounts of serotonin may contribute to other symptoms of PMS, such as fatigue, food cravings and sleep problems.

Occasionally, some women with severe premenstrual syndrome have undiagnosed depression, though depression alone does not cause all of the symptoms associated with premenstrual syndrome. Stress also may aggravate some of the symptoms, but alone it isn't a cause.

Some PMS symptoms have been linked to low levels of vitamins and minerals. Other possible contributors to PMS include eating a lot of salty foods, which may cause fluid retention, and drinking alcohol and caffeinated beverages, which may cause mood and energy level disturbances.

[d0uche_n0zzle]

My head hurts. Too much useless information clashing with my self ignorance.

[HummerTuesdays]

It takes a minimum of 0.2 seconds for any wackbagger to realize this thread is shit. Or was it just me?

Just you. I had no idea lacrosse was the national sport of Canada. I thought for sure it would be hockey, eh.

[generoso]

Just you. I had no idea lacrosse was the national sport of Canada. I thought for sure it would be hockey, eh.

That or curling

[fuckwit]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Canada

Canada is a nation with two official sports. Since its founding, and until 1994, the official sport was lacrosse, a sport invented by Aboriginal peoples. In 1994, First Nations groups objected to a government bill that proposed establishing solely ice hockey as Canada's national sport, arguing that it neglected and obliterated recognition of the game of lacrosse, a uniquely Native contribution. In response, the House of Commons amended the bill "to recognize hockey as Canada's National Winter Sport and lacrosse as Canada's National Summer Sport." On May 12, 1994, in Bill C-212, ice hockey joined lacrosse as official sports of Canada.

[BaLZaC~308]

Mood swings, tender breasts, a swollen abdomen, food cravings, fatigue, irritability and depression. If you experience some or all of these problems in the days before your monthly period, you may have premenstrual syndrome (PMS).

An estimated three of every four menstruating women experience some form of premenstrual syndrome. These problems are more likely to trouble women between their late 20s and early 40s, and they tend to recur in a predictable pattern. Yet the physical and emotional changes you experience with premenstrual syndrome may be more or less intense with each menstrual cycle.

Still, you don't have to let these problems control your life. In recent years, much has been learned about premenstrual syndrome. Treatments and lifestyle adjustments can help you reduce or manage the signs and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome.

For many women the signs and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome are an uncomfortable and unwelcome part of their monthly menstrual cycle. The most common physical and emotional signs and symptoms associated with premenstrual syndrome include:

Weight gain from fluid retention
Abdominal bloating
Breast tenderness
Tension or anxiety
Depressed mood
Crying spells
Mood swings and irritability or anger
Appetite changes and food cravings
Trouble falling asleep (insomnia)
Joint or muscle pain
Headache
Fatigue

Although the list of potential signs and symptoms is long, most women with premenstrual syndrome experience only a few of these problems.

For some women, the physical pain and emotional stress are severe enough to affect their daily routines and activities. For most of these women, symptoms disappear as the menstrual period begins.

But for some women with premenstrual syndrome, symptoms are so severe they're considered disabling. This form of PMS has its own psychiatric designation — premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). PMDD is a severe form of premenstrual syndrome with symptoms including severe depression, feelings of hopelessness, anger, anxiety, low self-esteem, difficulty concentrating, irritability and tension. A number of women with severe PMS may have an underlying psychiatric disorder.

Exactly what causes premenstrual syndrome is unknown, but several factors may contribute to the condition. Cyclic changes in hormones seem to be an important cause, because signs and symptoms of premenstrual syndrome change with hormonal fluctuations and also disappear with pregnancy and menopause.

Chemical changes in the brain also may be involved. One clue to the cause may be traced to fluctuations of serotonin, a brain chemical (neurotransmitter) that is thought to play a crucial role in mood states, especially depression. Insufficient amounts of serotonin may contribute to other symptoms of PMS, such as fatigue, food cravings and sleep problems.

Occasionally, some women with severe premenstrual syndrome have undiagnosed depression, though depression alone does not cause all of the symptoms associated with premenstrual syndrome. Stress also may aggravate some of the symptoms, but alone it isn't a cause.

Some PMS symptoms have been linked to low levels of vitamins and minerals. Other possible contributors to PMS include eating a lot of salty foods, which may cause fluid retention, and drinking alcohol and caffeinated beverages, which may cause mood and energy level disturbances.

little long winded but pretty funny

[sniper]

Mosquitoes have 36 teeth.

[gleet]

It's either raining or not raining, so if it's not raining, it must be raining.

[NortonsGravyLeg]

The event horizon is the gravity field of a black hole where the space-time is so bent that light cannot escape it. The event horizon creates a region in space where nothing can escape, if nothing can go beyond the speed of light. Thus when something enters the event horizon, it will vanish without a trace. Should the object be emitting something, after it is enveloped by the event horizon, not even the emissions that traced its existence will escape the black hole.
This creates something called the cosmic censorship hypothesis, proposed by Roger Penrose, that can be summarized as "God abhors a naked singularity" (Hawking 114). This means that no one outside of the event horizon of a black hole is capable of observing the breakdown of classical physics inside a black hole (Hawking 115). However, the black hole is also unforgiving towards those who would dare enter the event horizon (Hawking 115).

info from http://www.rdrop.com/users/green/school/horizon.htm

[WOWmagnet]

All liquids are fluids but all fluids are not liquids.

Fuck Islam.

[Turtle]

Mosquitoes have 36 teeth.

What?

[Hudson]

Boys have a penis, Girls have a Vagina.

[DoucheMeister]

Just you. I had no idea lacrosse was the national sport of Canada. I thought for sure it would be hockey, eh.

It should be changed, no one up here give a fuck about lacrosse.

[tstlkevanilla]

There was a time when reading wasn't just for fags. And neither was writing. People wrote books and movies. Movies with stories, that made you care about whose ass it was and why it was farting. And I believe that time can come again!
good for you.
My head hurts. Too much useless information clashing with my self ignorance.
amen

[Buster H]

good for you.

amen
if this thread hurts your head too bad, perhaps this thread would be more to your liking: http://www.wackbag.com/showthread.php?t=68935

[tstlkevanilla]

if this thread hurts your head too bad, perhaps this thread would be more to your liking: http://www.wackbag.com/showthread.php?t=68935
it's not exactly the thread that made my head hurt.

[Buster H]

it's not exactly the thread that made my head hurt.
so we can expect you not to post in this one anymore?

got news for you. it is not a requirement to post in EVERY thread

[tstlkevanilla]

got news for you. it is not a requirement to post in EVERY thread
exactly.

[Buster H]

OK after a derailing attempt let's get back to the point of the thread.

Yes, I pulled this from Wiki. It's been 12 years since I have operated one of these things and I cannot recall all of the details. The most interesting part of these things is the fact that they are inherently stable due to temperature.

Pressurized water reactors:
A PWR works because the nuclear fuel in the reactor vessel is engaged in a chain reaction, which produces heat, heating the water in the primary coolant loop by thermal conduction through the fuel cladding. (The primary coolant loop is shown in the schematic as a red dashed line.) The hot water is pumped into a certain type of heat exchanger called steam generator, which allows the primary coolant to heat up and boil the secondary coolant (shown as the loop steam generator → turbine → condenser). The transfer of heat is accomplished without mixing the two fluids. This is desirable, since the primary coolant is necessarily radioactive. The steam formed in the steam generator is allowed to flow through a steam turbine, and the energy extracted by the turbine is used to drive an electric generator. Other uses for the steam from a PWR include:

* In nuclear ships and submarines, the steam is fed through a steam turbine connected to a set of reduction gears to a shaft used for propulsion
* Direct mechanical action by expansion of the steam for things like a steam-powered Aircraft catapult
* District heating by the steam

In a nuclear power station, the steam is fed through a steam turbine which drives a generator connected to the electric grid for distribution, as shown above. After passing through the turbine the secondary coolant (water-steam mixture) is cooled down and condensed in a condenser before being fed into the steam generator again. This converts the steam to a liquid so that it can be pumped back into the high pressure steam generator.

Two things are characteristic for the pressurized water reactor (PWR) when compared with other reactor types:

* In a PWR, there are two separate coolant loops (primary and secondary), which are both filled with ordinary water (also called light water). A boiling water reactor, by contrast, has only one coolant loop, while more exotic designs such as breeder reactors use substances other than water for the task (e.g. sodium in its liquid state).
* The pressure in the primary coolant loop is typically 15-16 Megapascal, which is notably higher than in other nuclear reactors, and nearly twice that of a Boiling water reactor (BWR). As an effect of this, only localized boiling occurs and will recondense promptly in the bulk fluid. By contrast, in a boiling water reactor the primary coolant is designed to boil.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a0/PressurizedWaterReactor.gif/400px-PressurizedWaterReactor.gif

Pressurized water reactors, like thermal reactor designs, require the fast fission neutrons in the reactor to be slowed down (a process called moderation) to a "thermal" state in order to sustain its chain reaction. In PWRs the coolant water is used as a moderator by letting the neutrons undergo multiple collisions with light hydrogen atoms in the water, losing speed in the process. This "moderating" of neutrons will happen more often when the water is more dense (more collisions will occur). The use of water as a moderator is an important safety feature of PWRs, as any increase in temperature causes the water to expand and become less dense; thereby reducing the extent to which neutrons are slowed down and hence reducing the reactivity in the reactor. Therefore, if reactor activity increases beyond normal, the reduced moderation of neutrons will cause the chain reaction to slow down, producing less heat. This property, known as the negative temperature coefficient of reactivity, makes PWR reactors very stable. In contrast, the RBMK reactor design used at Chernobyl (using graphite instead of water as the moderator) greatly increases heat generation when coolant water temperatures increase, making them very unstable. This flaw in the RBMK reactor design is generally seen as one of several causes of the Chernobyl accident.

[wes mantooth]

The big yellow one's the sun.

[NortonsGravyLeg]

...In contrast, the RBMK reactor design used at Chernobyl (using graphite instead of water as the moderator) greatly increases heat generation when coolant water temperatures increase, making them very unstable. This flaw in the RBMK reactor design is generally seen as one of several causes of the Chernobyl accident.

Makes you hope one day for this...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_fusion

Hippos are omnivores. In spite of them not requiring meat to sustain a healthy diet they will sometimes feed upon a freshly killed animal. Such as if an aligator kills a wildebeast sometimes a bullying Hippo will come along and steal it and then dine on the carcas with one or two other hippos until they are bored...these of course the same large animals that will run with fear if a guinea fowl http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f186/jlseagull81/helmeted.jpg
runs on the beach scaring an entire pod of hippo back into the water.

[Hudson]

A dripping Faucet wastes up to 12 gallons a day
A Running toilet wastes up to 50 gallons a day
The Phase variance of a Klingon Disrupter is 5.117 Micons per .0001 Zens

[HummerTuesdays]

People will pay you for your plasma. http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/SavingandDebt/SaveMoney/SellingBodyPartsForCash.aspx?GT1=10123

Damn me for being so thin. You have to be at least 110 lbs. Maybe I should go eat some KFC Bowls.

[THE FEZ MAN]

It takes a minimum of 0.2 seconds for any wackbagger to realize this thread is shit. Or was it just me?


since i hide my money in books, i dont have to worry about you finding any of it

[Fr. Dougal]

My ship is the Millenium Falcon; she's the ship that made the Kessler Run in under 5 parsecs.

http://youtube.com/watch?v=ktERGxSQ9z8&mode=related&search=

[Turtle]

The Magna Carta is an English legal document written in 1215 AD which had a huge influence on the developing legal system of England. Because England's legal system was used as a model by many former colonies when they developed their own legal systems, the Magna Carta also had an impact on many other governments.

The proper name for the Magna Carta is the Magna Carta Libertatum, the Great Charter of Freedoms. The document is usually abbreviated as the Magna Carta, or Great Charter. It could be considered a bill of rights for medieval England, but was not enforced for several centuries however it did establish that the King was not above the law.

King John of England signed the Magna Carta under pressure from the Church and nobels because the King often lived above the law, violating both feudal and common law. Nobels with the support of the Church, pressured King John to spell out a list of their rights and guarantee that those rights would be enforced King John put his seal to the Magna Carta in Runnymede in June of 1215.

The Magna Carta also contained several clauses which were very influential on the development of similar bills of rights, such as the first 10 Amendments to the United States Constitution. Among these were the right to habeas corpus, a clause protecting the freedom of the church, and a clauses which spelled out the rules for due process.

King John later abandoned the Magna Carta, triggering a war which lasted until his death in 1216. His son, Henry III, took the throne, and reissued the Magna Carta in 1225.

[Fr. Dougal]

The Drake equation (rarely also called the Green Bank equation or the Sagan equation) is a famous result in the speculative fields of xenobiology, astrosociobiology and the search for extraterrestrial intelligence.

The Drake equation states that:

http://upload.wikimedia.org/math/8/9/7/8971cfbd63f15390fa4faf8e5d1dfd35.png

where:

N is the number of civilizations in our galaxy, with which we might hope to be able to communicate;

and

R* is the average rate of star formation in our galaxy
fp is the fraction of those stars that have planets
ne is the average number of planets that can potentially support life per star that has planets
fl is the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop life at some point
fi is the fraction of the above that actually go on to develop intelligent life
fc is the fraction of civilizations that develop a technology that releases detectable signs of their existence into space
L is the length of time such civilizations release detectable signals into space.

Considerable disagreement on the values of most of these parameters exists, but the values used by Drake and his colleagues in 1961 were:

* R* = 10/year (10 stars formed per year, on the average over the life of the galaxy)
* fp = 0.5 (half of all stars formed will have planets)
* ne = 2 (2 planets per star will be able to develop life)
* fl = 1 (100% of the planets will develop life)
* fi = 0.01 (1% of which will be intelligent life)
* fc = 0.01 (1% of which will be able to communicate)
* L = 10,000 years (which will last 10,000 years)

Drake's values give N = 10 × 0.5 × 2 × 1 × 0.01 × 0.01 × 10,000 = 10.

The remarkable thing about the Drake equation is that by plugging in apparently "plausible" values for each of the parameters above, the resultant expectant value of N is generally often (much) greater than 1. This has provided considerable motivation for the SETI movement. However, we do not currently see evidence of this value of N . Other assumptions give values of N that are (much) less than 1, in accord with the observable evidence. This conflict is often called the Fermi paradox, after Enrico Fermi who first asked about our lack of observation of extraterrestrials, and suggests that our understanding of what is a "conservative" value for some of the parameters may be overly optimistic or that some other factor is involved to suppress the development of intelligent space-faring life.

Other assumptions give values of N that are (much) less than 1, but some observers believe this is still compatible with observations due to the anthropic principle: no matter how low the probability that any given galaxy will have intelligent life in it, the universe must have at least one intelligent species by definition otherwise the question would not arise.

[Turtle]

Manifest Destiny was a concept which heavily influenced American policy in the 1800s, and the idea was the driving force behind the rapid expansion of America into the West from the East, and it was heavily promoted in newspapers, posters and speaches. While Manifest Destiny was not itself an official government policy, it led to the passage of legislation such as the Homestead Act, which encouraged Westward colonization and territorial acquisition.

The term was first used in 1845 by John O'Sullivan, an American newspaper editor who was writing about the proposed annexation of Texas. O'Sullivan stated that it was America's “manifest destiny to overspread the continent.” The editorial suggested that through expansion, the United States could become a recognized political and social superpower, America, O'Sullivan claimed, had been uniquely chosen for the task of expanding Westward, & therfore establishing civilization in the West.

The Westward expansion of the United States started Louisiana Purchase (prior to the concept of Manifest Destiny) of 1803, in which 23% of the existing territory of the United States was acquired. The government saw the appeal in acquiring more land, as well as the potential political power which large tracts of land could confer upon the young nation. As a result, a policy pursuing aggressive expansion was actively pursued. The idea of Manifest Destiny was merely a component, and one which captured the popular imagination which brought a tide of Easterners into the West, supported by their belief in their right and duty to expand.

The idea of Manifest Destiny was also behind American political actions overseas. Although the term ceased to be used in a political context in the early twentieth century, the far-reaching impact of Manifest Destiny was clear. A section of the Manifest Destiny editorial reminded Americans that they were uniquely positioned to spread democracy throughout the world, and this concept clearly played a role in twentieth century American foreign policy. Many historians use the term “Manifest Destiny” to refer to the period in American history which was marked by rapid expansion “from sea to shining sea” through annexation of the Western half of the continent.

[Plunkies]

"But every time I learn something new, it pushes out something old! Remember that time I took that home wine-making course and forgot how to drive?"

"That's because you were drunk!"

"And how!"

[sniper]

The event horizon is the gravity field of a black hole where the space-time is so bent that light cannot escape it. The event horizon creates a region in space where nothing can escape, if nothing can go beyond the speed of light. Thus when something enters the event horizon, it will vanish without a trace. Should the object be emitting something, after it is enveloped by the event horizon, not even the emissions that traced its existence will escape the black hole.
This creates something called the cosmic censorship hypothesis, proposed by Roger Penrose, that can be summarized as "God abhors a naked singularity" (Hawking 114). This means that no one outside of the event horizon of a black hole is capable of observing the breakdown of classical physics inside a black hole (Hawking 115). However, the black hole is also unforgiving towards those who would dare enter the event horizon (Hawking 115).

info from http://www.rdrop.com/users/green/school/horizon.htm

I hate you, now i have to watch that movie!

[BaLZaC~308]

Angelfucks measurements are 32 23 32 :icon_mrgr

[Beeman99]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sport_in_Canada

fuck, I live here and I didn't know that

[NortonsGravyLeg]

Dangling participle or hanging participle or unattached participle
Walking back home yesterday, a tree nearly fell on my head. If strict logic is applied to that sentence, it should mean that the tree was walking back home: the subject of the main clause of a sentence (here, a tree) is assumed to be the subject of a phrase attached to the main clause – as in Being shy, she never said a word.

But language does not always keep to the tramlines of strict logic, and it is quite common to find attached phrases applying to some other part of the main clause (here, the 'I' implied by my head). Such phrases usually contain participles: they are called dangling participles, or hanging participles, or unattached participles. In the sentence above, the dangling participle is a present participle walking, but you can also have a dangling past participle: If properly secured, you shouldn't be able to remove the cover.

Dangling participles are not considered acceptable in standard English, so they should be avoided in writing. Recast offending sentences so that the subject of the attached phrase is clear: As I was walking back home yesterday a tree nearly fell on my head; If the cover is properly secured, you shouldn't be able to remove it.
© From the Hutchinson Encyclopaedia.
Helicon Publishing LTD 2007.
All rights reserved

[Hudson]

Reciprocity: rec·i·proc·i·ty
Pronunciation: "re-s&-'prä-s(&-)tE
Function: noun
Inflected Form(s): plural -ties
1 : the quality or state of being reciprocal : mutual dependence, action, or influence
2 : a mutual exchange of privileges; specifically : a recognition by one of two countries or institutions of the validity of licenses or privileges granted by the other

[BaLZaC~308]

Reciprocity: rec·i·proc·i·ty
Pronunciation: "re-s&-'prä-s(&-)tE
Function: noun
Inflected Form(s): plural -ties
1 : the quality or state of being reciprocal : mutual dependence, action, or influence
2 : a mutual exchange of privileges; specifically : a recognition by one of two countries or institutions of the validity of licenses or privileges granted by the other

Thank you hudson

The only time I have ever seen this word before was in "Clear and Present Danger." It was the name of the CIA's covert op against the columbian cartel (I think)

[Hudson]

Thank you hudson

The only time I have ever seen this word before was in "Clear and Present Danger." It was the name of the CIA's covert op against the columbian cartel (I think)
Seemed appropriate.

[THE FEZ MAN]

superfluous:

Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1) - Cite This Source
su·per·flu·ous /sʊˈpɜrfluəs/ Pronunciation Key - Show Spelled Pronunciation[soo-pur-floo-uhs] Pronunciation Key - Show IPA Pronunciation
–adjective
1. being more than is sufficient or required; excessive.
2. unnecessary or needless.
3. Obsolete. possessing or spending more than enough or necessary; extravagant.
[Origin: 1400–50; late ME < L superfluus, equiv. to super- super- + flu- (s. of fluere to flow) + -us -ous]

[Hudson]

For Jimmy:

coprophilia /cop·ro·phil·ia/ (kop?ro-fil´e-ah) an absorbing interest in feces or filth, particularly a paraphilia in which sexual arousal or activity is linked to feces.coprophil´iccoprophil´iac

[Sam_Adams]

Thank you hudson

The only time I have ever seen this word before was in "Clear and Present Danger." It was the name of the CIA's covert op against the columbian cartel (I think)

Ever heard of a "reciprocal saw?" Or it will be called a reciprocating saw or there is a generic name of a certain brand that people like to say when referring to the saw, a Sawzall.

It's the same principle of going back and forth, giving and taking. But kudos on learning something new. It's a word used a lot in Anthropology to explain market trade between individuals/social groups.

[bethm1b]

Bee's are responsible for 1/3rd the food we eat.

Canada is the second largest county in the world

our dollar is damn near worth as much as the USA's now

the beaver is our national animal

a one dollar coin is the loonie, a two dollar coin is the toonie

Lacrosse is our national sport

The leader of our country is the Prime Minister, the leaders of our provinces and territories are Premiers


Bees are being killed off here by people who hate insects.

America is a large country.

The worth of our dollar diminishes your monetary gain.

The beaver is a cute little nickname for cooter.

The one dollar coin is annoying and the two dollar coin is worth hundreds.

LaCrosse is a french transvestite in Greenwhich village.

The leader of our country is an idiot and the leaders of our provinces are idiot wanna be's.

[Turtle]

Bees are being killed off here by people who hate insects.

America is a large country.

The worth of our dollar diminishes your monetary gain.

The beaver is a cute little nickname for cooter.

The one dollar coin is annoying and the two dollar coin is worth hundreds.

LaCrosse is a french transvestite in Greenwhich village.

The leader of our country is an idiot and the leaders of our provinces are idiot wanna be's.

Not sure we learned anything here, more opinions rather than facts. Come back and try again sometime.

[NortonsGravyLeg]

Fauvism-
Les Fauves (French for The Wild Beasts) were a short-lived and loose grouping of early Modern artists whose works emphasized painterly qualities, and the use of deep color over the representational values retained by Impressionism. Fauvists simplified lines, made the subject of the painting easy to read, exaggerated perspectives and used brilliant but arbitrary colors. They also emphasized freshness and spontaneity over finish. The leaders of the movement, Moreau's top students, were Henri Matisse and André Derain — friendly rivals of a sort, each with his own followers. The paintings, for example Matisse's 1908 The Dessert or Derain's The Two Barges, use powerful reds or other forceful colors to draw the eye. Matisse became the yang to Picasso's yin in the 20th century while time has trapped Derain at the century's beginning, a "wild beast" forever. Their disciples included Albert Marquet, Charles Camoin, the Belgian painter Henri Evenepoel, Jean Puy, Maurice de Vlaminck, Raoul Dufy, Othon Friesz, Georges Rouault, the Dutch painter Kees van Dongen, the Swiss painter Alice Bailly and Picasso's partner in Cubism, Georges Braque. Fauvism, as a movement, had no concrete theories, and was short lived, beginning in 1905 and ending in 1907, they only had three exhibitions. Matisse was seen as the leader of the movement, due to his seniority in age and prior self-establishment in the academic art world. He said he wanted to create art to delight; art as a decoration was his purpose and it can be said that his use of bright colors tries to maintain serenity of composition.
http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f186/jlseagull81/fuavism.jpg

[Sct Ptersns Twn]

Naval Station Norfolk, in Norfolk, Virginia, is a base of the United States Navy, supporting naval forces operating in the Atlantic Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and Indian Ocean.

NS Norfolk, also known as the Norfolk Navy Base, occupies about 4,300 acres (17 km²) of Hampton Roads real estate in a peninsula known as Sewell's Point. It is the world's largest Naval Station; in fact, based on supported military population, it is the largest naval installation/base in the world.

[highway23]

http://riannanworld.typepad.com/my_weblog/images/jonathan_l.JPG

the human head weighs 8lbs:action-sm

cool thread

[Turtle]

A Krugerrand is a gold coin minted by the Republic of South Africa, but it can not be used to buy anything in a store. Most other gold coins have a face value, the Krugerrand has no actual face value apart from its precious metal content. On the front of the coin is a profile of Paul Kruger, an early president of the Republic of South Africa. The Afrikaans words Sud Africa appear, along with the English South Africa. The back of a Krugerrand features a male springbok, a national symbol of South Africa.

The original Krugerrand was designed to contain precisely one ounce of 22 karat gold, approximately 33 grams. The actual weight is a little over 1 troy ounce because a small amount of copper, about 1/12 of the total weight, is added to make the coin more resistant to damage,in 1980, three smaller sizes of Krugerrands were minted, weighing 1/2 ounce, 1/4 ounce and 1/10 ounce.

Here's where politics and economics enter the picture. The United States and other countries used to back their currency with what is known as the gold standard. Over time the US treasury stopped using gold as a backup for currency, relying more on the control of circulation. The government still had vast reserves of gold, but private individuals had to rely on the stability of the national economy.

Meanwhile, the Republic of South Africa had discovered a huge gold vein and was eager to market it to the world. Since private ownership of gold ingots was illegal, the South African government decided to produce a gold coin and give it 'legal tender' status. It was not illegal for US citizens to purchase foreign coins, no matter what metals were used. The South African Krugerrand could be sold at a mere 5% over the current price of gold. The South African government would benefit from the sales of its gold and investors would have a hedge against economic collapse. Because of its special content, a Krugerrand can be readily liquidated into currency in most countries.

The main concern with Krugerrand sales is South Africa's history. The Krugerrand was first minted at a time when black workers in the diamond and gold mines were treated like slaves. Although racial conditions in South Africa have improved in recent years, it is still considered a rogue state in some circles. Buying Krugerrands during the days of active apartheid could be seen as tacit approval of the practice.

Other gold coins have now emerged to challenge the Krugerrand, made with 24 karat gold and no copper alloy an it has become much easier to purchase gold ingots as an investment today than it was in the 1960s. So the Krugerrand has lost much of its appeal

[NortonsGravyLeg]

I like what Turtle brings to the table, we should keep this thread going...

Morse code is a method for transmitting telegraphic information, using standardized sequences of short and long elements to represent the letters, numerals, punctuation and special characters of a message. The short and long elements can be formed by sounds, marks or pulses, in on off keying and are commonly known as "dots" and "dashes" or "dits" and "dahs".

International Morse code is composed of six elements:

1. short mark, dot or 'dit' (·)
2. longer mark, dash or 'dah' (-)
3. intra-character gap (between the dots and dashes within a character)
4. short gap (between letters)
5. medium gap (between words)
6. long gap (between sentences — about seven units of time)

These six elements serve as the basis for International Morse code and therefore can be applied to the use of Morse code world-wide.

Morse code can be transmitted in a number of ways: originally as electrical pulses along a telegraph wire, but also as an audio tone, as a radio signal with short and long pulses or tones, or as a mechanical or visual signal (e.g. a flashing light) using devices like an Aldis lamp or a heliograph. Morse code is transmitted using just two states — on and off — so it was an early form of a digital code. However, it is technically not binary, as the pause lengths are required to decode the information.

Originally created for Samuel F. B. Morse's electric telegraph in the early 1840s, Morse code was also extensively used for early radio communication beginning in the 1890s. For the first half of the twentieth century, the majority of high-speed international communication was conducted in Morse code, using telegraph lines, undersea cables, and radio circuits. However, the variable length of the Morse characters made it hard to adapt to automated circuits, so for most electronic communication it has been replaced by more machinable formats, such as Baudot code and ASCII.

The most popular current use of Morse code is by amateur radio operators. Although no longer a requirement for Amateur licensing in most countries, it also continues to be used for specialized purposes, including identification of navigational radio beacon and land mobile transmitters, plus some military communication, including flashing-light semaphore communications between ships in some naval services. Morse code is the only digital modulation mode designed to be easily read by humans without a computer, making it appropriate for sending automated digital data in voice channels, as well as making it ideal for emergency signaling, such as by way of improvised energy sources that can be easily "keyed" such as by supplying and removing electric power (e.g. by switching a breaker on and off).

[Hoagie]

The angle of the dangle varies inversely with the heat of the meat.

[Turtle]

The eleven General Orders that guide every Marine throughout his years in the Corps:

1. To take charge of this post and all government property in view.

2. To walk my post in a military manner, keeping always on then alert and observing everything that takes place within sight or hearing.

3. To report all violations of orders I am instructed to enforce.

4. To repeat all calls from posts more distant from the guardhouse than my own.

5. To quit my post only when properly relieved.

6. To receive, obey, and pass on the sentry who relieves me, all orders from the commanding officer, officer of the day, and officers and noncommissioned officers of the guard only.

7. To talk to no one except in line of duty.

8. To give the alarm in case of fire or disorder.

9. To call the corporal of the guard in any case not covered by instructions.

10. To salute all officers and all colors and standards not cased.

11. To be especially watchful at night and, during the time for challenging, to challenge all persons on or near my post and to allow no one to pass without proper authority.

[Sct Ptersns Twn]

The shortest distance between two places is a straight line.

[fkornre]

The Monroe Doctrine is a U.S. doctrine which, on December 2, 1823, proclaimed that European powers would no longer colonize or interfere with the affairs of the nations of the Americas. The United States planned to stay neutral in wars between European powers and its colonies. However, if these latter types of wars were to occur in the Americas, the United States would view such action as hostile. President James Monroe first stated the doctrine during his seventh annual State of the Union Address to Congress, a defining moment in the foreign policy of the United States.

[Turtle]

A BTU, short for British Thermal Unit, is a basic measure of thermal (heat) energy. One BTU is the amount of energy needed to heat one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit, measured at its heaviest point. In other words, if you placed 16 ounces of water at 59°F into a stovetop pan and turned on the gas burner, it would take one BTU to raise the temperature of the water to 60°F. As more BTUs continue to flow from the gas flame, the water will eventually reach the boiling point of 212°F.

A BTU is also the equivalent of 252 heat calories, not to be confused with the kilo-calories of food, and of approximately a third of a watt of electrical power. When speaking of cooling power, the BTU also works in reverse. The air-cooling power of an air conditioning system refers to the amount of thermal energy removed from an area. Hence a 65,000 BTU heater and a 65,000 BTU air conditioner are of roughly the same capacity and size. The higher the BTU output, the more powerful the heating or cooling system.

[Beeman99]

Bees are being killed off here by people who hate insects.

America is a large country.

The worth of our dollar diminishes your monetary gain.

The beaver is a cute little nickname for cooter.

The one dollar coin is annoying and the two dollar coin is worth hundreds.

LaCrosse is a french transvestite in Greenwhich village.

The leader of our country is an idiot and the leaders of our provinces are idiot wanna be's.

haha, you're a fucking moron. Come back when you steal a brain.

[NortonsGravyLeg]

Shesmu (Shezmu, Shesemu, Shezmou, Shesmou, Sezmu, Sesmu, Schesmu, Schezemu) was an ancient Egyptian demon-god of the underworld. He was a slaughtering demon, god of precious oils for beauty and embalming and a god of the wine press. He was thought to be a helper of the justified dead, offering them alcoholic red wine to drink. Yet he was also seen to be a demon who would tear off the head of a wrongdoer, throwing the head into the wine press to squeeze out the blood as if it was grape juice.

The Shesmu Decan, One Group of Stars that Rose for Ten Days Each Year Shesmu's dual personality was evident from the texts in the Pyramid of Unas and the Book of the Dead. Throughout Egyptian history, from the early dynastic times through to the Roman period he was seen as both a kind benefactor to the good and a cruel dispatcher of those who deserved it.

The Egyptians depicted him as a full man, a lion-headed man or as a hawk. On the list of Decans (star groups into which the night sky was divided, with each group appearing for ten days annually) at the temple of Hathor at Dendera, Shesmu appeared as a man on a boat with a uraeus on top of his head, between two stars. When writing about the Shesmu Decan, the star hieroglyph (star determinative) was added to his name.

[Fr. Dougal]

The official name of Camp David, the presidential retreat, is Naval Support Facility Thurmont.

The Naval Support Facility Thurmont, popularly known as Camp David, is the rustic 125-acre (0.5 km²) mountain retreat of the President of the United States. Camp David is part of the Catoctin Mountain Park recreational area in Frederick County, Maryland, 60 miles north of Washington, D.C. It was founded by President Franklin D. Roosevelt as Shangri-La and later renamed Camp David after Dwight Eisenhower's grandson, David Eisenhower.

Catoctin Mountain Park was originally submarginal land purchased by the U.S. government in 1936, to be developed into a recreational facility. The purpose of the land was to demonstrate how rough terrain and eroded soil could be turned into productive land.

During the New Deal program of President Franklin D. Roosevelt, the Works Progress Administration began the work in the newly created Catoctin Recreational Demonstration Area, joined by the Civilian Conservation Corps in 1939. Camp Misty Mount was first used by the Maryland League for Crippled Children. After the first year (1937), the League moved to a second camp, Camp Greentop, because Camp Misty Mount's terrain was difficult to negotiate in a wheelchair. A third camp, Camp Hi-Catoctin, was completed in the winter of 1938-1939 and was used for three years as a family camp for federal employees.

Roosevelt was accustomed to seeking relief from hot Washington summers and relaxing on weekends aboard the presidential yacht Potomac or at his home in Hyde Park, New York. In 1942, the Secret Service became concerned about the President's use of Potomac. World War II had brought U-boats of the Kriegsmarine (German War Navy) to U.S. coastal waters in the Atlantic. Roosevelt's health was also a concern. The muggy climate of the Washington area was considered detrimental to his health, affecting his sinuses. A new retreat within a 100 mile (160 km) radius of the capital with cool mountain air was sought.

Several sites were considered but Camp Hi-Catoctin in the Catoctin Recreational Demonstration Area was selected after the President's first visit on April 22, 1942. A camp was already built on the site and the estimated conversion cost was $18,650. It was also almost 10°F (5°C) cooler than Washington. Roosevelt quickly renamed the camp Shangri-La, from James Hilton's 1933 novel, Lost Horizon.

[Glenn Dandy]

Hot water freezes faster than cold water.

water 105 degrees and below cannot burn you, just feels like it is.

a galloon of water weighs 8.33 lbs.

the minimum sq. inches allowable for a shower stall is 1024 sq inches, unless it is a fabricated form, in wich i think? its 900 sq.

capacity in gallons of pipe. V=.0408XD2XLenght

Weight of water in pipes. W=.34XD2XLenght of pipe.

1 psi is = to 2.3 feet of verticle rise in a columb of water.

.434 pushes water 1 foot.

and for every .434 you lose one foot.

When calculating BTU,s

1lb of water equaling 1 degree Farenheight = 1 BTU

My hair is getting thin.

[Buster H]

Found this one here:
http://plus.maths.org/issue38/features/nishiyama/



The number 6174 is a really mysterious number. At first glance, it might not seem so obvious. But as we are about to see, anyone who can subtract can uncover the mystery that makes 6174 so special.
Kaprekar's operation

In 1949 the mathematician D. R. Kaprekar from Devlali, India, devised a process now known as Kaprekar's operation. First choose a four digit number where the digits are not all the same (that is not 1111, 2222,...). Then rearrange the digits to get the largest and smallest numbers these digits can make. Finally, subtract the smallest number from the largest to get a new number, and carry on repeating the operation for each new number.

It is a simple operation, but Kaprekar discovered it led to a surprising result. Let's try it out, starting with the number 2005, the digits of last year. The maximum number we can make with these digits is 5200, and the minimum is 0025 or 25 (if one or more of the digits is zero, embed these in the left hand side of the minimum number). The subtractions are:

5200 - 0025 = 5175
7551 - 1557 = 5994
9954 - 4599 = 5355
5553 - 3555 = 1998
9981 - 1899 = 8082
8820 - 0288 = 8532
8532 - 2358 = 6174
7641 - 1467 = 6174

When we reach 6174 the operation repeats itself, returning 6174 every time. We call the number 6174 a kernel of this operation. So 6174 is a kernel for Kaprekar's operation, but is this as special as 6174 gets? Well not only is 6174 the only kernel for the operation, it also has one more surprise up it's sleeve. Let's try again starting with a different number, say 1789.

9871 - 1789 = 8082
8820 - 0288 = 8532
8532 - 2358 = 6174

We reached 6174 again!

When we started with 2005 the process reached 6174 in seven steps, and for 1789 in three steps. In fact, you reach 6174 for all four digit numbers that don't have all the digits the same. It's marvellous, isn't it? Kaprekar's operation is so simple but uncovers such an interesting result. And this will become even more intriguing when we think about the reason why all four digit numbers reach this mysterious number 6174.

there is much more explanation at the link

[Dr. Hoffman]

Im shocked that you didn't include MOA in your definition of Arc Seconds. Both are based on the same concept sir. :action-sm

[FAZ8218]

Between 1820 and 1920, 4.4 million. Italians immigrated to the United States. To date, the number reaches nearly 5.5 million.

Immigration is a fairly new phenomena to Italians residing in Italy today. However, many immigrants arrive in Italy everyday. According to ISTAT, the Italian National Institute of Statistics, as of January 1, 2006, there are 2.7 million LEGAL immigrants residing in Italy. It is estimated, with the inclusion of illegal immigrants, the number is close to 3 million. The largest group amongst these immigrants are Albanians, followed by Moroccans, Romanians, Ukrainians, and Chinese.

Italians have not taken kindly to this recent influx of immigrants to their country and a majority of them continue to neglect the problems they are facing. Discrimination of immigrants is an everyday occurrence in Italy.

It seems as though they are neglecting a piece of their own history, failing to realize that they were once "the Albanians" here in the US, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, and Australia. At the peak of immigration here in the US, many Italians were discriminated against. At times, they were viewed to be lower than African Americans and Irish immigrants, because those groups at least spoke the language. Most famously is the false conviction of Sacco and Vanzetti. Also, the largest single lynching in American history was not of African-Americans, but of Italian Immigrants, when 11 Italians were lynched in New Orleans in 1892.

Perhaps Italians today need to reflect on these cases when dealing with the challenge of immigrants entering their own country.

[Turtle]

Understanding how magnets work means figuring out the dynamics of a magnetic field. Consider the space that surrounds a magnet. This space is occupied by a magnetic force and is called a magnetic field. If a magnet is placed within this field, it will be acted upon by magnetic forces.

A magnetic field is created as the result of moving charges. A good example of this is electric current that flows through a wire. When this occurs, there are negatively charged, subatomic particles, called electrons, moving through the wire. As these charges move, a magnetic field forms around the wire. Likewise, the magnetic field of a magnet is created by the movement of electrons.

A magnet’s magnetic field either attracts or repels certain metals, as well as other magnets. A magnet has two ends that are referred to as poles. One pole is called north and the other one is referred to as south. To attract magnets to each other, you have to place opposite ends of two magnets near each other. Placing like ends of two magnets near each other causes the opposite to occur; the two magnets repel each other.

Interestingly, the Earth has a natural, magnetic field at is core. If you take a look at a compass, you will notice that one side is marked “N” and faces toward the Earth’s northern magnetic pole. As such, this part of the compass is referred to as the North-seeking pole. However, the Earth’s north magnetic pole should not be confused with its North Pole. The North Pole is located hundreds of miles away from the north-seeking pole.

There are many types of magnets, they are categorized as permanent, temporary, and electromagnetic. Permanent magnets maintain their magnetic properties for an extended period of time while temporary magnets lose their magnetism more quickly. An electromagnet, on the other hand, is one that is created using electricity. Its strength can be altered based on the electrical current that is allowed to move through it.

[NoFilterPaul]

al sharpton is a pointless coon

[Voss's Tumor]

OK after a derailing attempt let's get back to the point of the thread.

Yes, I pulled this from Wiki. It's been 12 years since I have operated one of these things and I cannot recall all of the details. The most interesting part of these things is the fact that they are inherently stable due to temperature.

Pressurized water reactors:
A PWR works because the nuclear fuel in the reactor vessel is engaged in a chain reaction, which produces heat, heating the water in the primary coolant loop by thermal conduction through the fuel cladding. (The primary coolant loop is shown in the schematic as a red dashed line.) The hot water is pumped into a certain type of heat exchanger called steam generator, which allows the primary coolant to heat up and boil the secondary coolant (shown as the loop steam generator → turbine → condenser). The transfer of heat is accomplished without mixing the two fluids. This is desirable, since the primary coolant is necessarily radioactive. The steam formed in the steam generator is allowed to flow through a steam turbine, and the energy extracted by the turbine is used to drive an electric generator. Other uses for the steam from a PWR include:

* In nuclear ships and submarines, the steam is fed through a steam turbine connected to a set of reduction gears to a shaft used for propulsion
* Direct mechanical action by expansion of the steam for things like a steam-powered Aircraft catapult
* District heating by the steam

In a nuclear power station, the steam is fed through a steam turbine which drives a generator connected to the electric grid for distribution, as shown above. After passing through the turbine the secondary coolant (water-steam mixture) is cooled down and condensed in a condenser before being fed into the steam generator again. This converts the steam to a liquid so that it can be pumped back into the high pressure steam generator.

Two things are characteristic for the pressurized water reactor (PWR) when compared with other reactor types:

* In a PWR, there are two separate coolant loops (primary and secondary), which are both filled with ordinary water (also called light water). A boiling water reactor, by contrast, has only one coolant loop, while more exotic designs such as breeder reactors use substances other than water for the task (e.g. sodium in its liquid state).
* The pressure in the primary coolant loop is typically 15-16 Megapascal, which is notably higher than in other nuclear reactors, and nearly twice that of a Boiling water reactor (BWR). As an effect of this, only localized boiling occurs and will recondense promptly in the bulk fluid. By contrast, in a boiling water reactor the primary coolant is designed to boil.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a0/PressurizedWaterReactor.gif/400px-PressurizedWaterReactor.gif

Pressurized water reactors, like thermal reactor designs, require the fast fission neutrons in the reactor to be slowed down (a process called moderation) to a "thermal" state in order to sustain its chain reaction. In PWRs the coolant water is used as a moderator by letting the neutrons undergo multiple collisions with light hydrogen atoms in the water, losing speed in the process. This "moderating" of neutrons will happen more often when the water is more dense (more collisions will occur). The use of water as a moderator is an important safety feature of PWRs, as any increase in temperature causes the water to expand and become less dense; thereby reducing the extent to which neutrons are slowed down and hence reducing the reactivity in the reactor. Therefore, if reactor activity increases beyond normal, the reduced moderation of neutrons will cause the chain reaction to slow down, producing less heat. This property, known as the negative temperature coefficient of reactivity, makes PWR reactors very stable. In contrast, the RBMK reactor design used at Chernobyl (using graphite instead of water as the moderator) greatly increases heat generation when coolant water temperatures increase, making them very unstable. This flaw in the RBMK reactor design is generally seen as one of several causes of the Chernobyl accident.

Dude, you stole my shit. I was a Nuke in the Navy and it's basically the only thing I can speak about intelligently! That damn Wikki entry covered everything I was gonna say, including the negative temperature coefficient of reactivity, which is what makes American Reactors completely safe and Russian reactors fucking time bombs.

I will say that if you leave an open Ammonia bottle in the air tight trash can in the lab after doing a Primary Coolant add, your watch relief is going to pass out and wake up fucking hating you as you laugh your ass off at him when he opens the trash can. Or you can just put on a gas mask and leave it open in the lab (which is also air tight) and wait for him to open the door to take your watch. Good times.

Also, ... I think it was Hydrazine, when mixed with high concentrate H2O2 (Hydrogen Peroxide) blows up bigger than shit, and when mixed in a plastic chem bottle will make the coolest rocket that blows up against the wall and will entertain the other guys on watch for hours on end.

Oh, and the reactors I worked on usually operated around 11 megapascal (which is a unit of pressure I've never heard used before now), not 15-16.

807, FTN

[grail]

Fugu is a Japanese dish prepared from the meat of pufferfish (normally species of Takifugu, Lagocephalus, or Sphoeroides) or porcupinefish of the genus Diodon. Because pufferfish is lethally poisonous if prepared incorrectly, fugu has become one of the most celebrated and notorious dishes in Japanese cuisine.

Pufferfish contains lethal amounts of the poison tetrodotoxin in the internal organs, especially the liver and gonads, and also the skin. Therefore, only specially licensed chefs are allowed to prepare and sell fugu to the public, and the consumption of the liver and ovaries is forbidden. But because small amounts of the poison give a special desired sensation on the tongue, these parts are considered the most delicious by some gourmets. Every year, a number of people die because they underestimate the amount of poison in the consumed fish parts. The poison paralyzes the muscles while the victim stays fully conscious, and eventually dies from asphyxiation. There is currently no antidote, and the standard medical approach is to try to support the respiratory and circulatory system until the effect of the poison wears off.

Tetrodotoxin is a very potent neurotoxin and shuts down electrical signaling in nerves by binding to the pores of sodium channel proteins in nerve cell membranes. The tetrodotoxin is very stable and not affected by the heat of cooking. It does not cross the blood–brain barrier, leaving the victim fully conscious while paralyzing the remainder of the body. In animal studies with mice, 8 μg tetrodotoxin per kg body weight killed 50% of the mice. The pufferfish itself is not susceptible to the poison due to a mutation in the protein sequence of the sodium channel pump on the cell membranes.

If an ingested dose of the fugu's poison is lethal, as more and more muscles are paralyzed, symptoms may include dizziness, exhaustion, headache, nausea or difficulty breathing. For 50% to 80% of the victims, death follows within four to 24 hours. The victim remains fully conscious throughout most of the ordeal, but cannot speak or move due to paralysis, and soon also cannot breathe and subsequently asphyxiates. If the victim survives the first 24 hours, he or she usually recovers completely.

There is no known antidote, and treatment consists of emptying the stomach, feeding the victim activated charcoal to bind the toxin and taking standard life-support measures to keep the victim alive until the effect of the poison has worn off. Japanese toxicologists in several medical research centers are currently working on developing an antidote to tetrodotoxin.

Tetrodotoxin
Formula C11H17N3O8
LD50 5.0 - 8.0 µg/kg
Molecular mass 319.28 u

[Voss's Tumor]

Critical Mass and Critical Reactors are not bad things. What you've learned from the movies is wrong:

Nuclear criticality: if in this process the neutron population remains relatively constant then we state that the reactor has achieved criticality. There are many variables that can change the state of the reactor, but a good design will try to keep the reactor inherently stable. In a nuclear reactor, the reactor operator (which I once was) uses control rods to effectively or actually (depending on construction) absorb neutrons. By changing the position of these rods in the core he can change the status of criticality.

Subcriticality: If, on average, less than one free neutron causes another U-235 atom to fission, then the core is subcritical. In due time the induced fission will end.

Supercriticality :If, on average, more than one free neutron causes another U-235 atom to fission, then the core is supercritical. In due time the induced fission speed up causing the core to heat up. In a nuclear bomb, it is a designer goal to have all of the U-235 atoms split almost simultaneously, causing a mass release of energy.

A U-235 fission releases 2.34 neutrons per reaction on average, so the one to one ratio of a Critical reactor would have 1.34 neutrons on average not affecting any other nuclei.

Critical Mass:

The critical mass for lower-grade uranium depends strongly on the grade: with 20 % U-235 it is over 400 kg; with 15 % U-235, it is well over 600 kg.

The critical mass is inversely proportional to the square of the density: if the density is 1% more and the mass 2% less, then the volume is 3% less and the diameter 1% less. The probability for a neutron per cm travelled to hit a nucleus is proportional to the density, so 1% more, which compensates that the distance travelled before leaving the system is 1% less. This is something that must be taken into consideration when attempting more precise estimates of critical masses of plutonium isotopes than the rough values given above, because plutonium metal has a large number of different crystal phases which can have widely varying densities.

Note that not all neutrons contribute to the chain reaction. Some escape. Others undergo radiative capture.

Let q denote the probability that a given neutron induces fission in a nucleus. Let us consider only prompt neutrons, and let ν denote the number of prompt neutrons generated in a nuclear fission. For example, \nu \simeq 2.5 for uranium-235. Then, criticality occurs when νq = 1. The dependence of this upon geometry, mass, and density appears through the factor q.

Given a total interaction cross section σ (typically measured in barns), the mean free path of a prompt neutron is \ell^{-1} = n \sigma where n is the nuclear number density. Most interactions are scattering events, so that a given neutron obeys a random walk until it either escapes from the medium or causes a fission reaction. So long as other loss mechanisms are not significant, then, the radius of a spherical critical mass is rather roughly given by the product of the mean free path \ell and the square root of one plus the number of scattering events per fission event (call this s), since the net distance travelled in a random walk is proportional to the square root of the number of steps:

R_c \simeq \ell \sqrt{s} \simeq \frac{\sqrt{s}}{n \sigma}

Note again, however, that this is only a rough estimate.

In terms of the total mass M, the nuclear mass m, the density ρ, and a fudge factor f which takes into account geometrical and other effects, criticality corresponds to

1 = \frac{f \sigma}{m \sqrt{s}} \rho^{2/3} M^{1/3}

which clearly recovers the aforementioned result that critical mass depends inversely on the square of the density.

Alternatively, one may restate this more succinctly in terms of the areal density of mass, Σ:

1 = \frac{f' \sigma}{m \sqrt{s}} \Sigma

where the factor f has been rewritten as f' to account for the fact that the two values may differ depending upon geometrical effects and how one defines Σ. For example, for a bare solid sphere of Pu-239 criticality is at 320 kg/m², regardless of density, and for U-235 at 550 kg/m². In any case, criticality then depends upon a typical neutron "seeing" an amount of nuclei around it such that the areal density of nuclei exceeds a certain threshold.

This is applied in implosion-type nuclear weapons, where a spherical mass of fissile material that is substantially less than a critical mass, is made supercritical by very rapidly increasing ρ (and thus Σ as well), see below. Indeed, sophisticated nuclear weapons programs can make a functional device from less material than more primitive weapons programs require.

Aside from the math, there is a simple physical analog that helps explain this result. Consider diesel fumes belched from an exhaust pipe. Initially the fumes appear black, then gradually you are able to see through them without any trouble. This is not because the total scattering cross section of all the soot particles has changed, but because the soot has dispersed. If we consider a transparent cube of length L on a side, filled with soot, then the optical depth of this medium is inversely proportional to the square of L, and therefore proportional to the areal density of soot particles: we can make it easier to see through the imaginary cube just by making the cube larger.

Several uncertainties contribute to the determination of a precise value for critical masses, including (1) detailed knowledge of cross sections, (2) calculation of geometric effects. This latter problem provided significant motivation for the development of the Monte Carlo method in computational physics by Nicholas Metropolis and Stanislaw Ulam. In fact, even for a homogeneous solid sphere, the exact calculation is by no means trivial. Finally note that the calculation can also be performed by assuming a continuum approximation for the neutron transport, so that the problem reduces to a diffusion problem. However, as the typical linear dimensions are not significantly larger than the mean free path, such an approximation is only marginally applicable.

Finally, note that for some idealized geometries, the critical mass might formally be infinite, and other parameters are used to describe criticality. For example, consider an infinite sheet of fissionable material. For any finite thickness, this corresponds to an infinite mass. However, criticality is only achieved once the thickness of this slab exceeds a critical value.

Basically, think of the nucleus of an "Unstable" isotope like a balloon that has reached it's absolute maximum capacity. One more tiny bit of air and it's going to pop. The state that the nucleus reaches when it's ready to pop is called critical mass.

Think about it, why does a nucleus stay together? You've been taught all your life that opposites attract, and neutrons have no charge, so what compels all these positively charged little particles to stick to each other? There's a nuclear force which holds subatomic particles together at an exact distance of 10^-15 m. This force is approx. 137 times as strong as the electromagnetic force of repulsion, so it "glues" the nucleus together.

When a neutron makes the nucleus just a tad larger than the nuclear force can compensate for, it splits.

[Turtle]

The Hatfields and the McCoys were two families who lived across from each other on the Kentucky/West Virginia border. A bitter feud between the two families lasted for over thirty years, taking the lives of at least 12 men. The famous feud between the Hatfields and the McCoys is often used as a comparison when talking about bitter family feuds. Like many stories about 19th century America, it can be difficult to sort fact from fiction when examining accounts of the Hatfields and the McCoys.

The feud probably had its roots during the Civil War, when ironically enough both families were on the same side. Both families were farmers, and were relatively well off. They felt that the Civil War threatened their lifestyles, and William Anderson Hatfield and Randolph McCoy both led anti-Union guerilla groups. However, rivalries between to the two families began to be intense during the war, especially after the death of Asa McCoy, who fought on the side of the Union.

In 1873, the Hatfields and the McCoys entered into a bitter dispute over the ownership of a hog. (In 19th century America, taking someone else's livestock was viewed as a serious offense, since a single pig could help feed a small family during the winter) A McCoy claimed that a Hatfield had a pig which did not belong to him, and the matter was brought to trial before another Hatfield. Predictably, the final verdict was in favor of the Hatfield, and the feud of the Hatfields and the McCoys began. In 1880, the presiding judge was killed by two McCoy brothers, the first in a string of deaths linked to the feud.

Matters were complicated further in the 1880s when a McCoy daughter fell in love with a Hatfield son, leaving her family to live with the Hatfields. She later returned, followed by her husband, who was kidnapped by the McCoys and later rescued by a group of Hatfields. The feud attracted national attention, even leading to a call out of the militia in an attempt to put a stop to the social unrest and deaths associated with the Hatfields and the McCoys. In 1891, a truce was finally called between the Hatfields and the McCoys, and over 100 years later, in 2000, a reunion featuring both families was held, featuring friendly references to the infamous feud.

[Smokezilla]

The Hatfields and the McCoys were two families who lived across from each other on the Kentucky/West Virginia border. A bitter feud between the two families lasted for over thirty years, taking the lives of at least 12 men. The famous feud between the Hatfields and the McCoys is often used as a comparison when talking about bitter family feuds. Like many stories about 19th century America, it can be difficult to sort fact from fiction when examining accounts of the Hatfields and the McCoys.

The feud probably had its roots during the Civil War, when ironically enough both families were on the same side. Both families were farmers, and were relatively well off. They felt that the Civil War threatened their lifestyles, and William Anderson Hatfield and Randolph McCoy both led anti-Union guerilla groups. However, rivalries between to the two families began to be intense during the war, especially after the death of Asa McCoy, who fought on the side of the Union.

In 1873, the Hatfields and the McCoys entered into a bitter dispute over the ownership of a hog. (In 19th century America, taking someone else's livestock was viewed as a serious offense, since a single pig could help feed a small family during the winter) A McCoy claimed that a Hatfield had a pig which did not belong to him, and the matter was brought to trial before another Hatfield. Predictably, the final verdict was in favor of the Hatfield, and the feud of the Hatfields and the McCoys began. In 1880, the presiding judge was killed by two McCoy brothers, the first in a string of deaths linked to the feud.

Matters were complicated further in the 1880s when a McCoy daughter fell in love with a Hatfield son, leaving her family to live with the Hatfields. She later returned, followed by her husband, who was kidnapped by the McCoys and later rescued by a group of Hatfields. The feud attracted national attention, even leading to a call out of the militia in an attempt to put a stop to the social unrest and deaths associated with the Hatfields and the McCoys. In 1891, a truce was finally called between the Hatfields and the McCoys, and over 100 years later, in 2000, a reunion featuring both families was held, featuring friendly references to the infamous feud.


Come to my hometown!:action-sm

http://www.tourpikecounty.com/hm_festival.htm

http://img455.imageshack.us/img455/1200/nbcthemoreyouknow4fd315cq7.jpg (http://imageshack.us)

[NortonsGravyLeg]

Medicaid was created on July 30, 1965 through Title XIX of the Social Security Act. Each state administers its own Medicaid program while the federal Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) monitors the state-run programs and establishes requirements for service delivery, quality, funding, and eligibility standards.

Each state may have their own names for the program. Examples include "Medi-Cal" in California, "MassHealth" in Massachusetts, and "TennCare" in Tennessee. States may bundle together the administration of Medicaid with other separate programs such as the State Children's Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), so the same organization that handles Medicaid in a state may also manage those additional programs. Separate programs may also exist in some localities that are funded by the states or their political subdivisions to provide health coverage for indigents and minors

State participation in Medicaid is voluntary; however, all states have participated since 1982 when Arizona formed its AHCCCS program. In some states Medicaid is subcontracted to private health insurance companies, while other states pay providers (i.e., doctors, clinics and hospitals) directly to ensure that individuals receive proper medical attention.

Although their names are similar, Medicaid and Medicare are very different programs. Medicare is an entitlement program funded entirely at the federal level. It focuses primarily on the older population. As stated in the CMS website, Medicare is a health insurance program for people age 65 or older, people under age 65 with certain disabilities, and people of all ages with end stage renal disease.

Medicaid is also an entitlement program, but it is not solely funded at the federal level. States provide up to half of the funding for the Medicaid program. In some states, counties also contribute funds. The main criterion for Medicaid eligibility is limited income and financial resources, a criterion which plays no role in determining Medicare coverage. Medicaid covers a wider range of health care services than Medicare. In 2001, about 6.5 million Americans were enrolled in both Medicare and Medicaid, also known as Medicare dual eligible.

Medicaid is a joint federal-state program that provides health insurance coverage to low-income children, seniors and people with disabilities. While Congress and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services set out the main rules under which Medicaid operates, each state runs its own program. As a result, the eligibility rules are somewhat different in every state, although the framework is the same throughout the country.

Both the federal government and most state governments have made many changes to the eligibility requirements and restrictions over the years. This has most recently occurred with the passage of the Deficit Reduction Act (DRA) of 2005 (Pub.L. No. 109-171) which significantly changed rules governing the treatment of asset transfers and homes of nursing home residents. The implementation of these changes will proceed state-by-state over the next few years. To be certain of your rights under the Act you should consult an expert, as the rules are complex. The DRA now requires that anyone seeking Medicaid must produce documents to prove that they are a United States citizen or resident alien.

[grail]

The Hatfields and the McCoys were two families who lived across from each other on the Kentucky/West Virginia border. A bitter feud between the two families lasted for over thirty years, taking the lives of at least 12 men. The famous feud between the Hatfields and the McCoys is often used as a comparison when talking about bitter family feuds. Like many stories about 19th century America, it can be difficult to sort fact from fiction when examining accounts of the Hatfields and the McCoys.

The feud probably had its roots during the Civil War, when ironically enough both families were on the same side. Both families were farmers, and were relatively well off. They felt that the Civil War threatened their lifestyles, and William Anderson Hatfield and Randolph McCoy both led anti-Union guerilla groups. However, rivalries between to the two families began to be intense during the war, especially after the death of Asa McCoy, who fought on the side of the Union.

In 1873, the Hatfields and the McCoys entered into a bitter dispute over the ownership of a hog. (In 19th century America, taking someone else's livestock was viewed as a serious offense, since a single pig could help feed a small family during the winter) A McCoy claimed that a Hatfield had a pig which did not belong to him, and the matter was brought to trial before another Hatfield. Predictably, the final verdict was in favor of the Hatfield, and the feud of the Hatfields and the McCoys began. In 1880, the presiding judge was killed by two McCoy brothers, the first in a string of deaths linked to the feud.

Matters were complicated further in the 1880s when a McCoy daughter fell in love with a Hatfield son, leaving her family to live with the Hatfields. She later returned, followed by her husband, who was kidnapped by the McCoys and later rescued by a group of Hatfields. The feud attracted national attention, even leading to a call out of the militia in an attempt to put a stop to the social unrest and deaths associated with the Hatfields and the McCoys. In 1891, a truce was finally called between the Hatfields and the McCoys, and over 100 years later, in 2000, a reunion featuring both families was held, featuring friendly references to the infamous feud.

It wasn't entirely about a pig. The other more important cause of the fued was due to property and timber rights and the building of a railroad through Mingo Co., WV. This is what led to the militia intervening in the fued. It was about economic opportunity. The most infamous member was "Devil Anse" Hatfield.

[grail]

Polycarbonate can be synthesized from bisphenol A and phosgene (carbonyl dichloride, COCl2). The first step in the synthesis of polycarbonate from bisphenol A is treatment of bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide. This deprotonates the hydroxyl groups of the bisphenol A molecule.


The deprotonated oxygen reacts with phosgene through carbonyl addition to create a tetrahedral intermediate (not shown here), after which the negatively charged oxygen kicks off a chloride ion (Cl-) to form a chloroformate.


The chloroformate is then attacked by another deprotonated bisphenol A, eliminating the remaining chloride ion and forming a dimer of bisphenol A with a carbonate linkage in between.


Repetition of this process yields polycarbonate, a polymer with alternating carbonate groups and groups from bisphenol A.

Interaction with other chemicals
will damage Polycarbonate
Acetone
Acrylonitrile
Ammonia
Amyl acetate
Benzene
Bromine
Butyl acetate
Sodium hydroxide
Chloroform
Dimethylformamide
Ethanol
Concentrated Hydrochloric acid
Concentrated Hydrofluoric acid
Iodine
Methanol
Methyl ethyl ketone
Styrene
Tetrachloroethylene
Toluene
Concentrated Sulfuric acid
Xylene

require caution

alkali bleaches such as Sodium hypochlorite
Cyclohexanone
Diesel oil
Formic acid
Gasoline
Glycerine
Heating oil
Jet fuel
Concentrated Perchloric acid
Sulfur dioxide
Turpentine

are considered safe
Acetic acid
Ammonium chloride
Antimony trichloride
Borax in H2O
Butane
Calcium chloride
Calcium hypochlorite
Carbon dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Citric acid 10%
Copper sulphate
Ethyl alcohol 95%
Ethylene glycol
Formaldehyde 10%
Hydrochloric acid 20%
Hydrofluoric acid 5%
Isopropyl alcohol
Mercury
Methane
Oxygen
Ozone
Sulphur
Urea
Water(1)


(1) At room temperature. At temperatures above 60°C hydrolysis is more present, degrading the plastic. Degradation depends on time and temperature.

Using sodium hypochlorite (bleach) and other alkali cleaners on polycarbonate is not recommended as they cause the release of bisphenol A, a known endocrine disrupter


Polycarbonate is used in such things as lenses (glasses), nalgene bottles, part of the laminate in bullet proof glass, CDs and DVD's.

[Turtle]

The Stamp Act of 1765 will forever be associated with the colonial battle cry of “no taxation without representation.” The use of stamped, embossed paper on legal documents, newspapers and even playing cards were required fare under the stipulations of the Stamp Act. Stamps did not refer to the postage stamps, but rather, in colonial times, stamps were used in an embossing process. Pressure is applied to the stamp, leaving the imprint of a raised design on different materials. In colonial times, a stamp was used on paper, metal or fabric. A kind of watermark.

The presence of the stamp indicated payment of the imposed tax. Utilizing paper that had been stamped for legal documents was an established practice in England for years, but the American colonists had never heard of such a thing. They were outraged and responded violently to the Stamp Act.

The English Parliament passed the Stamp Act in a direct attempt to raise funds for the British military defending the borders of the American colonies. Violators of the law imposed by the Stamp Act were subject to trial in vice-admiralty courts. The concept of the Stamp Act was alien to the early colonists who had up to that time experienced only external and indirect taxation. The Sugar Act of 1764 was a tax on trade but it did not directly affect their lives in the same way as the Stamp Act. It can be said that the agitation stirred by the passage of the Stamp Act sowed the seeds of discontent that some ten years later erupted into the conflict known as the American Revolution.

The Stamp Act was not intended or considered to be an act of oppression by many of the luminaries of the day. Even Benjamin Franklin gave his agreement to the tax, albeit not without considerable hesitation. Despite the intentions of England, colonial reaction was intense, adverse and immediate. One of the unexpected effects of the passage of the Stamp Act was the unification of some of the more powerful factions of colonial society, namely: lawyers, clergy, businessmen and journalists.

The American colonists did not feel that they were fairly represented in government and their protest of “no taxation without representation” was never legally addressed. The Stamp Act angered them because they saw no need for the army that the proceeds from the Stamp Act were supposed to defray. The colonists stood their ground, and unable to enforce the Stamp Act, the English Parliament was forced to repeal it the following spring. Taxes and discontent swelled until finally, colonial America went to war with the mother country exerting its need for independence in the American Revolution.

[MJMANDALAY]

Battle of Baecula

Date 208 BC



The Battle of Baecula was Scipio Africanus’s first major field battle after he had taken command of Roman interests in Spain during the Second Punic War, in which he routed the Carthaginian army under the command of Hasdrubal Barca.



Prelude
After Scipio’s surprise attack and capture of Carthago Nova, the three Carthaginian armies in Spain remained separated, and their generals at odds with each other, thus giving the Romans a chance to deal with them one by one.

Early in 208 BC, Scipio moved against Hasdrubal, whose force wintered at Baecula, on the upper reaches of the river Baetis (modern day Guadalquiver).

Upon learning the approach of the Romans, Hasdrubal shifted his camp to a strong defensive position — a high and deep plateau south of Baecula, protected by ravines on the flanks and the river to the front and rear. Moreover the plateau was formed into two steps, on which Hasdrubal posted his light troops on the lower one and his main camp behind.

After his arrival, Scipio at first was uncertain how to attack such a formidable position, but concerned that the other two Carthaginian armies might take advantage of his inaction and join with Hasdrubal, he took action on the third day.


Battle
Before his main attack, Scipio sent one detachment to block the entrance to the valley separating the two armies and one to the road leading north to Baecula, thus providing security to his main force while harassing any Carthaginian attempt to retreat.

After these preliminary deployments were done, the Roman light troops advanced against their Carthaginian counterparts on the first step. Despite the steep slope and under a shower of missile attack, the Romans had little difficulty driving back the Carthaginian light troops once they got into hand to hand combat.

After reinforcing his leading force, Scipio derived a pincer attack on the flanks of the Carthaginian main camp, by ordering Gaius Laelius to lead half of the remaining heavy foot to the right of the enemy position, and he himself scaling the left.

Hasdrubal, meanwhile, was under the impression that the Roman attack was only a skirmish (Scipio had hidden his main army in camp until the final attack), failed to properly deploy his main force, thus his ill-prepared army was caught on three sides by the Romans.

Despite being trapped, Hasdrubal was able to retreat unmolested with his elephants, his main baggage train, and most of his Carthaginian troops. It appeared that his main losses in the battle were most of his light troops and Spanish allies. This was largely due to the legionnarie's choice to plunder the Carthaginian camp rather than pursue Hasdrubal with any earnestness.

Aftermath
After the battle, Hasdrubal led his depleted army over the western passes of the Pyrenees into Gaul, and subsequently into Italy with a mostly Gallic force in an ill-fated attempt to join his brother Hannibal.

Many historians criticized Scipio in letting Hasdrubal escape from Spain. But a pursuit by the Romans, through unknown, mountainous, and hostile terrains, while leaving two full strength and numerously superior Carthaginian armies to his rear, would risk another disaster like the Battle of Lake Trasimene, and be highly foolish.

Instead, Scipio retired his army to Tarraco, and managed to secure alliances with most of the Spanish tribes, who switched side after the Roman successes in Carthago Nova and Baecula.

Meanwhile, Carthaginian reinforcements landed in Spain during the winter, and would soon launch a final attempt to recover their losses.

[THE FEZ MAN]

sand paper contains no sand, its granulated aluminum oxide

[Turtle]

Battle of Baecula

Date 208 BC



The Battle of Baecula was Scipio Africanus’s first major field battle after he had taken command of Roman interests in Spain during the Second Punic War, in which he routed the Carthaginian army under the command of Hasdrubal Barca.



Prelude
After Scipio’s surprise attack and capture of Carthago Nova, the three Carthaginian armies in Spain remained separated, and their generals at odds with each other, thus giving the Romans a chance to deal with them one by one.

Early in 208 BC, Scipio moved against Hasdrubal, whose force wintered at Baecula, on the upper reaches of the river Baetis (modern day Guadalquiver).

Upon learning the approach of the Romans, Hasdrubal shifted his camp to a strong defensive position — a high and deep plateau south of Baecula, protected by ravines on the flanks and the river to the front and rear. Moreover the plateau was formed into two steps, on which Hasdrubal posted his light troops on the lower one and his main camp behind.

After his arrival, Scipio at first was uncertain how to attack such a formidable position, but concerned that the other two Carthaginian armies might take advantage of his inaction and join with Hasdrubal, he took action on the third day.


Battle
Before his main attack, Scipio sent one detachment to block the entrance to the valley separating the two armies and one to the road leading north to Baecula, thus providing security to his main force while harassing any Carthaginian attempt to retreat.

After these preliminary deployments were done, the Roman light troops advanced against their Carthaginian counterparts on the first step. Despite the steep slope and under a shower of missile attack, the Romans had little difficulty driving back the Carthaginian light troops once they got into hand to hand combat.

After reinforcing his leading force, Scipio derived a pincer attack on the flanks of the Carthaginian main camp, by ordering Gaius Laelius to lead half of the remaining heavy foot to the right of the enemy position, and he himself scaling the left.

Hasdrubal, meanwhile, was under the impression that the Roman attack was only a skirmish (Scipio had hidden his main army in camp until the final attack), failed to properly deploy his main force, thus his ill-prepared army was caught on three sides by the Romans.

Despite being trapped, Hasdrubal was able to retreat unmolested with his elephants, his main baggage train, and most of his Carthaginian troops. It appeared that his main losses in the battle were most of his light troops and Spanish allies. This was largely due to the legionnarie's choice to plunder the Carthaginian camp rather than pursue Hasdrubal with any earnestness.

Aftermath
After the battle, Hasdrubal led his depleted army over the western passes of the Pyrenees into Gaul, and subsequently into Italy with a mostly Gallic force in an ill-fated attempt to join his brother Hannibal.

Many historians criticized Scipio in letting Hasdrubal escape from Spain. But a pursuit by the Romans, through unknown, mountainous, and hostile terrains, while leaving two full strength and numerously superior Carthaginian armies to his rear, would risk another disaster like the Battle of Lake Trasimene, and be highly foolish.

Instead, Scipio retired his army to Tarraco, and managed to secure alliances with most of the Spanish tribes, who switched side after the Roman successes in Carthago Nova and Baecula.

Meanwhile, Carthaginian reinforcements landed in Spain during the winter, and would soon launch a final attempt to recover their losses.
I love to read/learn about battles in the ancient world

sand paper contains no sand, its granulated aluminum oxide

I always thought it was sand, no shit I though they put sand on paper with some a special glue

[THE FEZ MAN]

i know lots about sand paper;
grits
grades
backings
application
wana know more?

[Turtle]

sure

[Budyzir]

Off the top of my head;

One minute of latitude is equal to one nautical mile.

While longitude was easily measured by the early navigator, it wasn't until the development of an accurate timepiece, which could be carried aboard ship, that latitude could be calculated.

[MJMANDALAY]

sand paper contains no sand, its granulated aluminum oxide

Yerrrr Kiddin



Really I have used it for 20+ years never knew that.

[ern]

I would think it appropriate to quote your sources, so one could follow up if one so choses.

From Mao Tse-tung on GUERILLA WARFARE page 23: 1961

Because of superior information, guerillas always engage under conditions of their own choosing; because of superior knowledge of terrain, they are able to use it to their advantage and the enemy's discomfiture. Guerrillas fight only when the chances of victory are weighted heavily in their favor; if the tide of battle unexpectedly flows against them, they withdraw. They rely on imaginative leadership, distraction, surpirse, and mobility to create a victorius situation before battle is joined. The enemy is decieved and again deceived. Attacks are sudden, sharp, vicious, and of short duration. Many are harrassing in nature; others designed to dislocate the enemy's plans and to agitate and confuse his commanders. The mind of the enemy and the will of his leaders is a target of far more importance than the bodies of his troops.


Apply this to the current situation in IRAQ, and replace radical or extremist with guerilla and you have the same thing.

[ern]

Hot water freezes faster than cold water.
My hair is getting thin.

The phenomenon that hot water may freeze faster than cold is often called the Mpemba effect. Because, no doubt, most readers are extremely skeptical at this point, we should begin by stating precisely what we mean by the Mpemba effect. We start with two containers of water, which are identical in shape, and which hold identical amounts of water. The only difference between the two is that the water in one is at a higher (uniform) temperature than the water in the other. Now we cool both containers, using the exact same cooling process for each container. Under some conditions the initially warmer water will freeze first. If this occurs, we have seen the Mpemba effect. Of course, the initially warmer water will not freeze before the initially cooler water for all initial conditions. If the hot water starts at 99.9° C, and the cold water at 0.01° C, then clearly under those circumstances, the initially cooler water will freeze first. However, under some conditions the initially warmer water will freeze first -- if that happens, you have seen the Mpemba effect. But you will not see the Mpemba effect for just any initial temperatures, container shapes, or cooling conditions.

http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/hot_water.html

As far as your thinning hair, I couldn't find a source to back you up.

[THE FEZ MAN]

ok you asked for it

grit: the size of the particle, they range in size from 24 (the coarsest i use) to 3000 (the finest i use) the lower the # the larger the particle (that is how 3m and others grade there paper in the united states, country's using the metric system use micron designations, fucking metric horse shit) there is also a designation for the spacing between the pieces of grit, A-Z. i did lie a tad you can also buy special paper that uses garnet, and diamonds as the abrasive but that is a specialty product that i do not use often, i do have some diamond paper that i use on glass.

grades: closed cut, these are hard grinding stones, as wheels usually used for metals or glass and ceramics used both wet and dry. usually these are solid grit all the way thew with no backing. these are available in most grades from below 24 to beyond 4000 into the realm of high tech ceramics used to sharpen scalpels and very high end machining processes

open cut or free cut: these are usually paper plastic or cloth backed and used exclusively dry on many different hard substrates, metal, plastic, wood, and some times glass and ceramic. this is the sand paper most people are familiar with, and the staple of high school wood shops world wide. for the most part these are used for lower end finishing but lately they have been made available in higher grits 1000+ used for polishing. i personally do not use this type of paper in any grit higher than 320 (The coarsest paper i will use just before painting)

Wet/dry: this paper is almost exclusively backed buy a type of paper very similar to money, in that it is more like cloth but not really cloth, this paper can be used dry but preforms much better when lubrication is used during the sanding process, usually water with a few drops of a wetting agent (soap) or oil, this paper is usually not available in grades below 80 but is almost exclusively used in the higher grits 400 and up, because the higher the grade/grit of the paper the easier it clogs, therefore ruining the paper and the substrate buy disrupting the pattern on the paper (oh i forgot to mention that every type of paper also has a pattern of grit along with the grade) this type of paper is used exclusively on non porous substrates like metal, plastic (plastic includes paint, cuz modern paint is plastic, but thats another tid bit for later) stone and glass.

i can go on and on about sandpaper, about 30percent of my job is sanding stuff. every job has a specific type of abrasive that is appropriate for the finish desired

[ern]

i know lots about sand paper;
grits
grades
backings
application
wana know more?


Yes, why does my beltsander work better with bidrectional belts?

And why can I remove the particles that gunk up my sandpaper on my drum sander with a spongy material on a stick? I have no idea what it is, and how it works, it just does. I use the same stick on my beltsanders - a portable one and a 6x9 belt disk combo.

Thanks for the thread turtle.

[THE FEZ MAN]

the crepe rubber used to "clean" sanding belts works just like an eraser heating the sap and resins in the wood that is clogging the paper, grabbing it then flinging it off, bi directional belts work better because they clean themselves by cutting and clearing in two directions.

i dont do much wood sanding i mostly do plastic (car paint, fiberglass, acrylics ect) and metal, but i do do wood every once and a while. i can polish up a peice of hard wood to look like is encased in glass using only sand paper, candle wax and some lighter fluid

[Turtle]

Yerrrr Kiddin



Really I have used it for 20+ years never knew that.

same here

[Hudson]

Chlorine Is a Salt,
Wagner was Hitler and Hemingway's Favorite Opera composer.
Myans Invented Zero
AND TO BLOW YOUR MIND:
CHRIS WALKEN REPRISED HIS ROLE FROM THE PROPHECY AS GABRIEL, ANGEL OF DEATH, in CLICK Although called "Morty", as in Mortimer Death, Morty Bidiner, or Mortimus Angelis...

[grail]

Heat is transfered in one of three methods. Conduction, convection, and radiation. Conduction is the movement of energy directly from one mass to another or Conduction is heat transfer by means of molecular agitation within a material without any motion of the material as a whole (electric burner to a pot). Convection is the transfer of energy through mass transfer. (steam coming off of that pot). Radiation is energy transfered via electromagnetic waves and/or photons.

One of the reasons that a ice will form faster in a freezer when made with warm water is because of the transfer of energy via convection. The enthalpy is higher for warm water versus the cold.

Industrial chlorine is manufactured by electrolysis. Salt water brine is pumped into an closed electrolytic cell and energy is applied. The energy breaks apart the bonds between the sodium and chlorine atoms resulting in the formation of wet chlorine gas and liquid sodium hyrdoxide or caustic. The resulting chlorine is then transfered to a dryer via titanium lined pipes. After the dryer it's transfered via cast iron. The chlorine is then chilled and pressurized to liquify it for easier transfer and storage.

[ih8Uboo-boo]

The fair catch kick is a little-known, rarely enacted rule found in professional and some amateur American football. It is one of the three types of free kicks; the other two are the kickoff and the safety kick. The fair catch kick is the only of the three in which the kicking team may score a field goal. At one time a very similar rule existed in rugby union called goal from mark.

Fair catch kicks can only occur when a member of the receiving team signals for, and successfully makes, a fair catch. That team then has the option of restarting play either by snap or fair catch kick. If the team elects the fair catch kick option, the kicking team lines up at the spot where the fair catch was made and the opposing team lines up ten yards downfield. The kicker then may either placekick the ball from a teammate's hold (a kickoff tee may be used in high school) or dropkick the ball. Three points are awarded for kicking the ball through the uprights. If the kick does not go through the uprights, the ball is live, similar to either of the other free kicks. Likewise, a fair catch kick landing out of bounds but not in the end zone is awarded to the receiving team 30 yards from where it was kicked.

In the NFL, a fair catch kick may still be attempted if the quarter ends on the fair catch play. This is not automatic; a team's captain or coach must exercise this option.

The last successful fair catch kick in the NFL was by Mac Percival in 1968, scoring the game-winning field goal for the Chicago Bears against the Green Bay Packers. As of 2006, 8 more have been attempted, none successful.

[ern]

Myans Invented Zero


Zero
Zero was invented by the Hindu mathematicians Aryabhata and Varamihara in India around or shortly after the year 520 A.D.

http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/timeline_500.html

http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Miscellaneous/Pearce/Lectures/Ch7.html

7: Decimal numeration and the place-value system
I have already mentioned on several occasions the development of a decimal place value system of numeration and there is now very little doubt among historians that this invention originated from the Indian subcontinent. That said, it was considered, until recently, that Arabic scholars were responsible for the system, as C Srinivasiengar writes:

...During the earlier decades of this century (20th) attempts were made to credit this invention wholly or in part to the Arabs. [CS, P 2]
Further attempts have been made to attribute the first use of a place value system to the ancient Babylonian civilisation of Mesopotamia. While it cannot be denied that the Babylonians used a place value system, their's was sexagismal (base 60), and while the concept of place value may have come from Mesopotamia, the Indians were the first to use it with a decimal base (base 10).
All current evidence points towards the Indian system having been influenced by the base 10 Chinese 'counting boards' and the place value system of the Babylonians but combined use of decimal numerals and place value first occurred on the Indian subcontinent. Without doubt the use of a decimal base originates from the most basic human instinct of counting on one's fingers. The key contribution of the Indians however is not in the development of nine (recognisable) symbols to represent the numbers one to nine, but the invention of the place holder zero.

The great 18th century European mathematician Laplace best described the 'invention' of the decimal place value system as such:

...The idea of expressing all quantities by nine figures whereby is imparted to them both an absolute value and one by position is so simple that this very simplicity is the very reason for our not being sufficiently aware how much admiration it deserves. [CS, P 5]
Beyond not being fully appreciated D Duncan discusses briefly the enduring problem of Eurocentric scholars who long assumed the symbol for zero was a Greek invention, with no proof at all. The claims were based of pure speculations that zero came from the Greek letter omicron (O), the first letter of the Greek word ouden meaning empty. We know this to be untrue, but it serves as a timely reminder of the struggle for recognition of Indian mathematical developments.
There is wide ranging debate as to when the decimal place value system was developed, but there is significant evidence that an early system was in use by the inhabitants of the Indus valley by 3000 BC. Excavations at both Harappa and Mohenjo Daro have supported this theory. At this time however a 'complete' place value system had not yet been developed and along with symbols for the numbers one through nine, there were also symbols for 10, 20, 100 and so on.

The formation of the numeral forms as we know them now has taken several thousand years, and for quite some time in India there were several different forms. These included Kharosthi and Brahmi numerals, the latter were refined into the Gwalior numerals, which are notably similar to those in use today (see Figure 7.1). Study of the Brahmi numerals has also lent weight to claims that decimal numeration was in use by the Indus civilisation as correlations have been noted between the Indus and Brahmi scripts.

It is uncertain how much longer it took for zero to be invented but there is little doubt that such a symbol was in existence by 500 BC, if not in widespread use. Evidence can be found in the work of the famous Indian grammarian Panini (5th or 6th century BC) and later the work of Pingala a scholar who wrote a work, Chhandas-Sutra (c. 200 BC). The first documented evidence of the use of zero for mathematical purposes is not until around 2nd century AD (in the Bakhshali manuscript). The first recorded 'non-mathematical' use of zero dates even later, around 680 AD, the number 605 was found on a Khmer inscription in Cambodia. Despite this it seems certain that a symbol was in use prior to that time. B Datta and A Singh discuss the likelihood that the decimal place value system, including zero had been 'perfected' by 100 BC or earlier. Although there is no concrete evidence to support their claims, they are established on the very solid basis that new number systems take 800 to 1000 years to become 'commonly' used, which the Indian system had done by the 9th century AD.

The inventor of the zero symbol is unknown, but what is known is that it was firstly denoted by a dot, then possibly a circle with a dot in the centre, and later by the oval shape we now use. Prior to its invention, Indian mathematicians had already taken to leaving an empty column on their counting boards and clearly at some point this empty space was filled. The Indians referred to zero as 'sunya' meaning void. Again, although evidence points towards a Mesopotamian origin for a place holder, their 'zero' (two slanted bars) was not used in conjunction with a decimal base.

Having become firmly established in academic circles in India by the 6th century, the decimal place value system spread across the world. Initially to China and Alexandria, then to the Arab empire where it became the system of choice of the scholars in Baghdad by the 8th century.

Arabic scholars during this time improved the system by introducing decimal fractions. The system also spread into Spain, as has been previously discussed southern Spain was under Arabic rule into the 12th century. It took much longer for the system to be accepted in mainland Europe, but eventually by the 16th century it was widely used. That said, both prejudice and suspicion continued to be widespread, while orthodoxy also played its part in the continued use of Roman numerals. The last significant case of an attempt to abolish the Indian decimal place value system was in Sweden in the early 18th century.
This is clearly a very brief overview of the phenomenal development of the decimal place value system, without which it is accepted 'higher mathematics' would not be possible. It is impossible for me to do justice to its importance in such few words, so I will conclude with a quote from G Halstead who commented:

...The importance of the creation of the zero mark can never be exaggerated. This giving to airy nothing, not merely a local habituation and a name, a picture, a symbol but helpful power, is the characteristic of the Hindu race from whence it sprang. No single mathematical creation has been more potent for the general on go of intelligence and power. [CS, P 5]

[ern]

the crepe rubber used to "clean" sanding belts works just like an eraser heating the sap and resins in the wood that is clogging the paper, grabbing it then flinging it off, bi directional belts work better because they clean themselves by cutting and clearing in two directions.

i dont do much wood sanding i mostly do plastic (car paint, fiberglass, acrylics ect) and metal, but i do do wood every once and a while. i can polish up a peice of hard wood to look like is encased in glass using only sand paper, candle wax and some lighter fluid

Thank you sir, I appreciate it. I have done my fair share of sanding, and I know the importance of using lights for detecting swirls. I mainly use the feel method for less meaningful projects. My uncle is a custom furniture maker, well used to be, and I am more of a sawdust creator.

[Voss's Tumor]

Chlorine Is a Salt

Nossir! Chlorine is an element. Cl-

It commonly occurs in any of a number of salts, including table salt (NaCl), but Chlorine in itself is not a salt. Now, the stuff you put in your pool is a salt, but it's not pure Chlorine. Chlorine itself exists as a gas under normal atmospheric conditions, so it must be bound as a salt in order to be safe for the public to throw a few pellets in the pool. While this compound is commonly referred to as "Chlorine" since the Cl- is the active ingredient that you smell when you pop the can, it's actually a salt compound such as CaCl, or similar.

To keep the thread going a salt is defined as a molecule made up of a positive and negative ion and/or polyatomic ions. So if you see any common combinations such as NaCl, Ca(SO4), MgO, they are considered salts. (I was just shooting from the hip based on 10 year old knowledge, so if one of those isn't naturally occurring, um, blow me or something, heh)

For a rough judge on whether or not a compound is a salt, look at a periodic table of elements. If you see one element on the right hand and top side of the table (ie, S, O, Cl, F, P, etc) and one from the left and top side (ie Li, Mg, Na, Ca, etc) chances are it's a salt. You just gotta know if it's a polyatomic ion (hence your bastard chemistry teacher making you memorize all that shit in high school.)

One interesting thing about Chlorine, though, it's the active ingredient in Bleach (HCl, also known as hydrochloric acid), and if it's mixed with Windex )or any other ammonium/ammonia based cleaner), which contains ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), you cause the release of a highly toxic, concentrated form of Chlorine gas, among other, highly toxic gaseous compounds. Many slightly brain dead house wives have thought they were making a super cleaner and ended up just killing a few more brain cells, or themselves.

[grail]

Nossir! Chlorine is an element. Cl-

It commonly occurs in any of a number of salts, including table salt (NaCl), but Chlorine in itself is not a salt. Now, the stuff you put in your pool is a salt, but it's not pure Chlorine. Chlorine itself exists as a gas under normal atmospheric conditions, so it must be bound as a salt in order to be safe for the public to throw a few pellets in the pool. While this compound is commonly referred to as "Chlorine" since the Cl- is the active ingredient that you smell when you pop the can, it's actually a salt compound such as CaCl, or similar.

To keep the thread going a salt is defined as a molecule made up of a positive and negative ion and/or polyatomic ions. So if you see any common combinations such as NaCl, Ca(SO4), MgO, they are considered salts. (I was just shooting from the hip based on 10 year old knowledge, so if one of those isn't naturally occurring, um, blow me or something, heh)

For a rough judge on whether or not a compound is a salt, look at a periodic table of elements. If you see one element on the right hand and top side of the table (ie, S, O, Cl, F, P, etc) and one from the left and top side (ie Li, Mg, Na, Ca, etc) chances are it's a salt. You just gotta know if it's a polyatomic ion (hence your bastard chemistry teacher making you memorize all that shit in high school.)

One interesting thing about Chlorine, though, it's the active ingredient in Bleach (HCl, also known as hydrochloric acid), and if it's mixed with Windex )or any other ammonium/ammonia based cleaner), which contains ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), you cause the release of a highly toxic, concentrated form of Chlorine gas, among other, highly toxic gaseous compounds. Many slightly brain dead house wives have thought they were making a super cleaner and ended up just killing a few more brain cells, or themselves.


Close,

Chlorine is considered typically a salt due to it readily combining with any other metal. By itself it is found as a diatomic molecule.

Bleach is sodium hypochlorite NaClO not HCl and is only slightly acidic.

Mixing bleach with some household cleaners can be hazardous. For example, mixing an acid cleaner with sodium hypochlorite bleach generates chlorine gas. Mixing with ammonia solutions (including urine) produces chloramines. Both chlorine gas and chloramine gas are toxic. Bleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas: [1]

H2O2 (aqueous) + NaClO(aqueous) → NaCl(aqueous) + H2O(liquid) + O2 (gas)

Low concentration aqueos solutions of hydrogen peroxide are used as disenfectants. However it is a strong oxidizer. Pure or even down to a 40 % solution could dissolve your hand. When combined with the right ingrediant violent reactions can occur. One use is in rocket fuel.

[Glenn Dandy]

The Hatfields and the McCoys were two families who lived across from each other on the Kentucky/West Virginia border. A bitter feud between the two families lasted for over thirty years, taking the lives of at least 12 men. The famous feud between the Hatfields and the McCoys is often used as a comparison when talking about bitter family feuds. Like many stories about 19th century America, it can be difficult to sort fact from fiction when examining accounts of the Hatfields and the McCoys.

The feud probably had its roots during the Civil War, when ironically enough both families were on the same side. Both families were farmers, and were relatively well off. They felt that the Civil War threatened their lifestyles, and William Anderson Hatfield and Randolph McCoy both led anti-Union guerilla groups. However, rivalries between to the two families began to be intense during the war, especially after the death of Asa McCoy, who fought on the side of the Union.

In 1873, the Hatfields and the McCoys entered into a bitter dispute over the ownership of a hog. (In 19th century America, taking someone else's livestock was viewed as a serious offense, since a single pig could help feed a small family during the winter) A McCoy claimed that a Hatfield had a pig which did not belong to him, and the matter was brought to trial before another Hatfield. Predictably, the final verdict was in favor of the Hatfield, and the feud of the Hatfields and the McCoys began. In 1880, the presiding judge was killed by two McCoy brothers, the first in a string of deaths linked to the feud.

Matters were complicated further in the 1880s when a McCoy daughter fell in love with a Hatfield son, leaving her family to live with the Hatfields. She later returned, followed by her husband, who was kidnapped by the McCoys and later rescued by a group of Hatfields. The feud attracted national attention, even leading to a call out of the militia in an attempt to put a stop to the social unrest and deaths associated with the Hatfields and the McCoys. In 1891, a truce was finally called between the Hatfields and the McCoys, and over 100 years later, in 2000, a reunion featuring both families was held, featuring friendly references to the infamous feud.

Then James Hetfield started Metallica in 1982.

[Voss's Tumor]

Close,

Chlorine is considered typically a salt due to it readily combining with any other metal. By itself it is found as a diatomic molecule.

Bleach is sodium hypochlorite NaClO not HCl and is only slightly acidic.

Mixing bleach with some household cleaners can be hazardous. For example, mixing an acid cleaner with sodium hypochlorite bleach generates chlorine gas. Mixing with ammonia solutions (including urine) produces chloramines. Both chlorine gas and chloramine gas are toxic. Bleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas: [1]

H2O2 (aqueous) + NaClO(aqueous) → NaCl(aqueous) + H2O(liquid) + O2 (gas)

Low concentration aqueos solutions of hydrogen peroxide are used as disenfectants. However it is a strong oxidizer. Pure or even down to a 40 % solution could dissolve your hand. When combined with the right ingrediant violent reactions can occur. One use is in rocket fuel.

Like I said, 10 year old information. I'm amazed I was that close considering that was all off the top of my head

[umo]

Nobody in China speaks Chinese. Chinese is not a language. Chinese people speak a variety of languages such as Mandarin, Wu, Cantonese, Min, Xiang, Hakka or Gan. Nobody in India speaks Indian nor does any American Indian speak Indian. Come to think of it...nobody in the USA speaks American. In this country we also choose from a linguistic buffet such as english, hilllbilly, redneck, ebonics, cajun, nuyorican and chicano.

[THE FEZ MAN]

we do speak American, they are just different dialects of English. but i get ya. a i have two friends that are "English" from the UK, i love to hear them talk

[NortonsGravyLeg]

Equatorial Guinea
...officially the Republic of Equatorial Guinea, is a country in West Middle Africa. One of the smallest countries in continental Africa, Equatorial Guinea is comprised of a mainland territory known as Río Muni (including several offshore islands); the island of Bioko (formerly Fernando Pó), where the capital, Malabo (formerly Santa Isabel) is located; and the island of Annobón in the South Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered by Cameroon on the north, Gabon on the south and east, and the Gulf of Guinea on the west, where the island nation of São Tomé and Príncipe is located. Formerly the Spanish colony of Spanish Guinea, its post-independence name is suggestive of its location near both the equator and the Gulf of Guinea. It is the only country in mainland Africa where Spanish is an official language, excluding the Spanish territories of Canary Islands, Ceuta and Melilla, and the self proclaimed but unrecognised Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (Western Sahara).

Equatorial Guinea is the smallest country, in terms of population, in continental Africa (Seychelles and São Tomé and Príncipe are smaller in terms of area). It is also the smallest United Nations member from continental Africa. The discovery of sizeable oil reserves changed the history of the country in recent years.

The first inhabitants of the continental region that is now Equatorial Guinea are believed to have been Pygmies, of whom only isolated pockets remain in northern Río Muni. Bantu migrations between the seventeenth and nineteenth centuries brought the coastal tribes and later the Fang. Elements of the latter may have generated the Bubi, who emigrated to Bioko from Cameroon and Rio Muni in several waves and succeeded former Neolithic populations. The Bubi were the very first human inhabitants of Bioko Island. The Annobon population, native to Angola, was introduced by the Portuguese via São Tomé Island (São Tomé and Príncipe).

The Portuguese explorer, Fernão do Pó, seeking a route to India, is credited with having discovered the island of Bioko in 1472. He called it Formosa ("Beautiful"), but it quickly took on the name of its European discoverer. The islands of Fernando Pó and Annobón were colonized by Portugal in 1474. The Portuguese retained control until 1778, when the island, adjacent islets, and commercial rights to the mainland between the Niger and Ogoue Rivers were ceded to Spain in exchange for territory in the American continent (Treaty of El Pardo, between Queen Maria I of Portugal and King Charles III of Spain). From 1827 to 1843, Britain established a base on the island to combat the slave trade. The mainland portion, Rio Muni, became a protectorate in 1885 and a colony in 1900. Conflicting claims to the mainland were settled in 1900 by the Treaty of Paris, and periodically, the mainland territories were united administratively under Spanish rule. Between 1926 and 1959 they were united as the colony of Spanish Guinea.

[Hudson]

Close,

Chlorine is considered typically a salt due to it readily combining with any other metal. By itself it is found as a diatomic molecule.

Bleach is sodium hypochlorite NaClO not HCl and is only slightly acidic.

Mixing bleach with some household cleaners can be hazardous. For example, mixing an acid cleaner with sodium hypochlorite bleach generates chlorine gas. Mixing with ammonia solutions (including urine) produces chloramines. Both chlorine gas and chloramine gas are toxic. Bleach can react violently with hydrogen peroxide and produce oxygen gas: [1]

H2O2 (aqueous) + NaClO(aqueous) → NaCl(aqueous) + H2O(liquid) + O2 (gas)

Low concentration aqueos solutions of hydrogen peroxide are used as disenfectants. However it is a strong oxidizer. Pure or even down to a 40 % solution could dissolve your hand. When combined with the right ingrediant violent reactions can occur. One use is in rocket fuel.
I guess that my pool operator's book needs to be corrected

[dodisman]

An unconsolidated sedimentary deposit that accumulates at the mouth of a mountain canyon because of a dimunition or cessation of sediment transport by the issuing stream. The deposits, which are generally fan-shaped in plan view, can develop under a wide range of climatic conditions
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/Images/aster_artII_alluvial.jpg

This is a picture of an alluvial fan kids...pretty cool if you are into geology and silt deposits.

[Turtle]

An unconsolidated sedimentary deposit that accumulates at the mouth of a mountain canyon because of a dimunition or cessation of sediment transport by the issuing stream. The deposits, which are generally fan-shaped in plan view, can develop under a wide range of climatic conditions
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/Images/aster_artII_alluvial.jpg

This is a picture of an alluvial fan kids...pretty cool if you are into geology and silt deposits.

very cool

[Fr. Dougal]

The Stanley Cup:

ENGRAVING FACTS, FIRSTS & FAUX PAS

MEASUREMENTS

Original Bowl (silver)
Height: 18.5 cm / 7.28 inches
Diameter: 29 cm / 11.42 inches

Current Version (silver and nickel alloy)
Full Stanley Cup:
Height - 89.54 cm / 35-1/4 inches
Weight - 34-1/2 lbs - 15-1/2 kg

Bowl:
Height - 19.05 cm / 7-1/2 inches
Diameter - 28.57 cm / 11-1/4 inches
Circumference - 88.9 cm / 35 inches

Collar: Height - 15.87 cm / 6-1/4 inches
Shoulder: Height - 8.25 cm / 3-1/4 inches
Barrel: Height - 46.35 cm / 18-1/4 inches
Base: Diameter - 43.81 cm / 17-1/4 inches


QUICK HITS

http://www.legendsofhockey.net/graphsilver/Engrave2.jpg
The 1906-07 Stanley Cup Champion Montreal Wanderers engraved within the inner bowl.

* Total Number of Individuals Engraved on Cup: 2,008
* First Team to Engrave its Roster: 1906-07 Montreal Wanderers
* Year When Engraving Roster Became Annual Tradition: 1924
* Most Names Engraved on Cup (one year): 55 (1997-98 Detroit Red Wings)
* Most Appearances on Cup (player):

11 - Henri Richard (Montreal Canadiens)
10 - Jean Beliveau & Yvan Cournoyer (Montreal Canadiens)
9 - Claude Provost (Montreal Canadiens)
8 - Red Kelly (Detroit Red Wings & Toronto Maple Leafs), Jacques Lemaire, Maurice Richard & Serge Savard (Montreal Canadiens)
7 - Jean-Guy Talbot (Montreal Canadiens)

* Most Appearances on Cup (coach):

9 - Scotty Bowman (Detroit Red Wings, Pittsburgh Penguins, Montreal Canadiens)
8 - Hector "Toe" Blake (Montreal Canadiens)

* First Woman Officially Engraved on Cup: Marguerite Norris (President of the Detroit Red Wings 1954 & 1955)
* Women Engraved on Cup: Marguerite Norris (1954, 1955), Sonia Scurfield (Calgary, 1989), Marie Denise DeBartolo York (Pittsburgh, 1991), Marian Ilitch (Detroit 1997, 1998, 2002), Denise Ilitch Lites (Detroit 1997, 1998, 2002), Lisa Ilitch Murray (Detroit 1997, 1998, 2002), Carole Ilitch (Detroit 1997, 1998, 2002), Marie Carnevale (New Jersey, 2000), Callie Smith (New Jersey, 2000), Charlotte Grahame (Colorado, 2001) and Nancy Beard (Detroit, 2002).

ERRORS & CORRECTIONS

The following is a list of some of the mistakes and corrections made in the engraving process:

1937-38: Chicago Blackhawks - Pete Palangio's name appears twice, once spelled correctly and once incorrectly as PALAGIO.
1941-42: Toronto Maple Leafs - Turk Broda is represented twice, once as TURK BRODA and once as WALTER BRODA.
1946-47: Toronto Maple Leafs - Gaye Stewart is misspelled as GAVE STEWART.
1951-52: Detroit Red Wings - Coach Tommy Ivan's name is misspelled as TOMMY NIVAN
-- Alex Delvecchio's name is misspelled as ALEX BELVECCHIO.
1956-60: Montreal Canadiens - Jacques Plante won the Stanley Cup five consecutive years, his name is spelled differently each and every time.
1962-63: Toronto Maple Leafs - Misspelled as TORONTO MAPLE LEAES.
1971-72: Boston Bruins - Misspelled as BQSTQN BRUINS.
1974-75: Montreal Canadiens - Bob Gainey's name is misspelled as GAINY.
1980-81: New York Islanders - Misspelled as NEW YORK ILANDERS.
1983-84: Edmonton Oilers - Owner Peter Pocklington included the name of his father Basil Pocklington, who was unaffiliated with the team. The NHL learned of the move and ordered the name removed. The name is now covered by 16 X's.
1995-96: Colorado Avalanche - ADAM DEADMARSH was misspelled as ADAM DEADMARCH. It was later corrected - a Stanley Cup first.
2001-02: Detroit Red Wings - MANNY LAGACE was corrected to MANNY LEGACE.

http://www.legendsofhockey.net/graphsilver/Engrave3.jpg
The misspelled 1980-81 New York Islanders engraving

http://www.legendsofhockey.net/graphsilver/Engrave4.jpg
The 1983-84 Edmonton Oilers engraving with the X'd out Bazil Pocklington.

Of note: The Boston Bruins elected to engrave hard-rock defenseman Ted Green on their team's 1971-72 championship roster, even though Green had suffered a serious injury in the exhibition season and did not play that year.

ROLL CALL

Listed below are the number of names on each section of the Cup:

Inside Bowl
1906-07 Montreal Wanderers 20
1914-15 Vancouver Millionaires 9
Unknown H. Broadbent 1
Total 30

First Ring
1924-25 Victoria Cougars 12
1925-26 Montreal Maroons 18
Total 30

Second Ring
1926-27 Ottawa Senators 17
1928-29 Boston Bruins 16
Total 33

Fourth Ring
1923-24 Montreal Canadiens 21
Total 21

Barrel Ring 1
1953-54 Detroit Red Wings 28
1954-55 Detroit Red Wings 26
1955-56 Montreal Canadiens 27
1956-57 Montreal Canadiens 26
1957-58 Montreal Canadiens 29
1958-59 Montreal Canadiens 29
1959-60 Montreal Canadiens 27
1960-61 Chicago Black Hawks 30
1961-62 Toronto Maple Leafs 31
1962-63 Toronto Maple Leafs 30
1963-64 Toronto Maple Leafs 27
1964-65 Montreal Canadiens 32 (team took two spaces)
Total 342

Barrel Ring 2
1965-66 Montreal Canadiens 27
1966-67 Toronto Maple Leafs 32
1967-68 Montreal Canadiens 28
1968-69 Montreal Canadiens 28
1969-70 Boston Bruins 36
1970-71 Montreal Canadiens 31
1971-72 Boston Bruins 27
1972-73 Montreal Canadiens 29
1973-74 Philadelphia Flyers 31
1974-75 Philadelphia Flyers 33
1975-76 Montreal Canadiens 29
1976-77 Montreal Canadiens 34
1977-78 Montreal Canadiens 35
Total 400

Barrel Ring 3
1978-79 Montreal Canadiens 36
1979-80 New York Islanders 33
1980-81 New York Islanders 33
1981-82 New York Islanders 31
1982-83 New York Islanders 31
1983-84 Edmonton Oilers 30*
1984-85 Edmonton Oilers 38
1985-86 Montreal Canadiens 41
1986-87 Edmonton Oilers 40
1987-88 Edmonton Oilers 34
1988-89 Calgary Flames 39
1989-90 Edmonton Oilers 46
1990-91 Pittsburgh Penguins 41
Total 473*

Barrel Ring 4
1991-92 Pittsburgh Penguins 52
1992-93 Montreal Canadiens 41
1993-94 New York Rangers 44
1994-95 New Jersey Devils 43
1995-96 Colorado Avalanche 41
1996-97 Detroit Red Wings 52
1997-98 Detroit Red Wings 55
1998-99 Dallas Stars 47
1999-2000 New Jersey Devils 52
2000-01 Colorado Avalanche 48
2001-02 Detroit Red Wings 52
2002-03 New Jersey Devils 52
2003-04 Tampa Bay Lightning 52
Total 631

Barrel Ring 4
2004-05 Season Not Played 0
2005-06 Carolina Hurricanes 52
Total 52

Grand Total 2008*

*Does not count 1983-84 name of Bazil Pocklington (X'd out)


http://www.legendsofhockey.net/graphsilver/Engrave5.jpg
The Original Bowl with tiers
(circa 1920s)

http://www.legendsofhockey.net/graphsilver/Engrave6.jpg
The streamlined Stanley Cup
(1927-1947)

http://www.legendsofhockey.net/graphsilver/Engrave7.jpg
The Stanley Cup
(circa 1950s)


Carving A Piece of History
There have only been four official engravers of the Stanley Cup. The first engravers comprised of two generations of the Peterson family, with assistance from Fred Light Sr. They were followed by Doug Boffey, owner of Boffey Silversmiths of Montreal. The current engraver is Louise St. Jacques, who took over Boffey's engraving business and left the legacy of the shop's name in place.

During engraving the Cup is disassembled from the top down. The band being engraved is clamped onto a homemade circular jig that creates a steel background for stamping. Special hammers with different head-weights are used to strike against a letter-punch to sink each letter into the silver.

[Joe Avezzano]

My ship is the Millenium Falcon; she's the ship that made the Kessler Run in under 5 parsecs.

Sir, you were not paying attention to post #1 in this thread. To say that your (Han Solo's) ship accomplished that feat in a number of parsecs is inappropriate as parsecs refer to a distance, not a time. Assuming that the Kessler Run is defined by a set distance, you are saying that "your" ship went a certain distance in a certain distance (in this case, roughly 16 light years.) I assume the error was made because the Kessler Run is in fact 5 parsecs in distance, so the appropriate syntax would be "She's the ship that made the Kessler Run in under 5 earth-hours," for example (assuming that "your" Millennium Falcon is capable of superluminal speeds.)

[NortonsGravyLeg]

The original Siegfried line (Siegfriedstellung) was a line of defensive forts and tank defenses built by Germany as a section of the Hindenburg Line 1916-1917 in northern France during World War I. However, in English, Siegfried line more commonly refers to the similar World War II defensive line, built during the 1930s, opposite the French Maginot Line, which served a corresponding purpose. The Germans themselves called this the Westwall, but the Allies renamed it after the First World War line. This article deals with this second Siegfried line.

The Siegfried Line was a defence system stretching more than 630km (392 miles) with more than 18,000 bunkers, tunnels and tank traps. It went from Kleve on the border with the Netherlands, along the western border of the old German Empire as far as the town of Weil am Rhein on the border to Switzerland. More with propaganda in mind than for any strategic reason, Adolf Hitler planned the line from 1936 and had it built between 1938 and 1940. This was after the Nazis had broken the Treaty of Versailles and the Locarno Treaties by remilitarizing the Rhineland in 1936.

Today we can no longer know for certain the exact origin of the German name Westwall (West Wall). It is most likely that the name simply came into popular use from the end of 1938. Nazi propaganda did not initially use the term very much, but the name was well-known from the middle of 1939, as Hitler sent an "order of the day to the soldiers and the workers at the Westwall" on May 20, 1939. The official name for the line until then had depended on the programmes described in the next section of this article. The name "Limes Programme" for example was a deliberately misleading cover name, chosen to make people think of the archaeological research that had just finished at the Limes Germanicus (Upper Germanic and Rhaetian Limes).
http://i47.photobucket.com/albums/f186/jlseagull81/siegfried.jpg
from wikipedia

[Budyzir]

too much reading, my eyes hurt.

[Hudson]

"Such are the slavish horrors that one knows......he who cannot swim!"- Ben Franklin
Ben Franklin is credited at the USA Swimming Hall of Fame with inventing swim goggles and swim fins

[Voss's Tumor]

I couldn't find anything that wasn't long winded or way too elementary for this thread, so I'll just tell you my own experience.

Octopus are fucking smart, like, way smarter than I am.

I've personally witnessed multiple octopuses that could change color at will. I've researched it and found that octopus are the only creature on earth that can change color at will, ie, chameleons will change color to change their background, octopus change color to reflect their moods and/or communicate. Not only that, they can change the texture of their skin to reflect that of flowing moss, and/or mimic any number of sea creatures to lure in prey, including vegetation, sea horses, etc.

There was a particular Bali Dwarf Octopus I knew who would mimic the color of the shirts of the employees of the pet shop where he was housed when he was hungry. He would turn all black with a white spot on his head. When he was noticed putting on his food show, the tech would knock on the glass three times, and he would stick a tentacle out of the tank. Trip would hand him a crawfish and he was all good. He would then turn back into "a rock" and hide. If you ever wanted to piss him off you could just get right next to him and stare at him through the glass. When he noticed you looking at him he'd turn a crazy shade of red, jump around a minute, then instantly go back into the gray/black color and become a rock again, with moss and all.

Another story is one that I didn't see first hand, but I've seen the infrared video to know it's true.

There was an Atlantic Giant Octopus acquired by an aquarium in San Diego. Not quite knowing what to do with him, but having a basic knowledge of his ability to blend they put him in the shark tank.

They started finding shark corpses in the mornings.

They hypothesized that the sharks were cannibalizing, but they set up cameras to be sure. Turns out the octopus was hiding, waiting for a shark to swim within striking distance, then lashing out and smothering the sharks.

So they put him in his own tank. This was a closed tank with latches on the top. There was a tank of Nautilus nearby and soon after they put this tank in the Nautilus started disappearing.

Now for those of you that don't know, Nautilus are fucking valuable, I mean to the tune of 500-2,000$+ per large, living specimen. All they knew no one but the cleaning crew had access, so they fired everyone.

They kept disappearing, so they set up another camera.

This smart bastard was unlatching his lid, climbing along the wall outside of the water while holding his breath, unlatching the Nautilus tank, reaching in and taking a few, closing... and relatching... the lid, climbing back to his tank, then closing... and relatching... his own tank, then chowing down. This is a fucking fish, hell, an invertibrate, with the presence of mind to relatch his own lid to cover his tracks.

Yeah, Octopus are smart.

[Hudson]

Sticking with What I know:


Poem By Stephen Crane:
A Man Went Before A Strange God
A man went before a strange God --
The God of many men, sadly wise.
And the deity thundered loudly,
Fat with rage, and puffing.
"Kneel, mortal, and cringe
And grovel and do homage
To My Particularly Sublime Majesty."

The man fled.

Then the man went to another God --
The God of his inner thoughts.
And this one looked at him
With soft eyes
Lit with infinite comprehension,
And said, "My poor child!"

[Turtle]

too much reading, my eyes hurt.

but there is some cool info in here

[Turtle]

The tem "Albatross around your neck" comes from Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "The Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner". An albatross, a symbol of good luck, landed on the ship and was killed by the captain while the ship was in calm water. The killing was thought to be the reason for a prolonged lack of wind. The Captain was forced to wear the albatross as a reminder of the wrong he had done.

[SatansCheerledr]

Octopus are fucking smart. They really are. I've read about them too. Fuckers creep me out they are so smart.

[Turtle]

The origin term “Making money hand over fist” is often attributed to dock workers pulling ropes to unload cargo. The action of workers pulling rope hand over hand to move cargo was thought to be the start of the term. However in ancient Rome the meaning was quite literal. When a Roman General ruptured to Rome triumphant, he would often hand out money to the plebian Roman citizens. But first the money needed to be made. To that end some of the precious metal that was brought back to Rome was melted down and cut into coins. These blank coins were given to smiths and they would stamp the likeness of the victorious general on each side of the coin. So a few things were needed; a hammer, two negative images of the general placed on short metal rods, and a tool that resembled a jigger used by a bartender. The jigger was in fact hollow, a coin would be placed on top of one negative, held in place by the jigger and a second blank was place on top. When the hammer stroke was delivered, a coin with the general’s image would appear. This could be done quickly and the repetitive action was the origin of the term.

[SatansCheerledr]

When a Roman General ruptured to Rome triumphant,

Ouch, that's gotta hurt.

[Turtle]

Ouch, that's gotta hurt.

:haha7::haha7::haha7:

[Hudson]

For those Xanadu fans:
Kira's(Olivia Newton John's Character) real name was:
Terpsichore
One of the nine Muses of ancient Greece. Terpsichore is the Muse of dancing and the dramatic chorus, and later of lyric poetry (and in even later versions, of flute playing). Hence the word terpsichorean, pertaining to dance. She is usually represented seated, and holding a lyre. According to some traditions, she is the mother of the Sirens with the river-god Achelous. She is also occasionally mentioned as the mother of Linus by Apollo.

[Fr. Dougal]

The only thing holding the Space Shuttle stack to the lauch pad are 8 small frangible nuts.

The orbiter is attached to the External Tank... which is in turn attached to the twin Solid Rocket Boosters... which are each bolted to the Mobile Launch Platform by four nuts that blow apart upon launch.



http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/srb/posts.html
Hold-Down Posts

Each solid rocket booster has four hold- down posts that fit into corresponding support posts on the mobile launcher platform. Hold- down bolts hold the SRB and launcher platform posts together. Each bolt has a nut at each end, but only the top nut is frangible. The top nut contains two NASA standard detonators, which are ignited at solid rocket motor ignition commands.

When the two NSDs are ignited at each hold-down, the hold-down bolt travels downward because of the release of tension in the bolt (pretensioned before launch), NSD gas pressure and gravity. The bolt is stopped by the stud deceleration stand, which contains sand. The SRB bolt is 28 inches long and is 3.5 inches in diameter. The frangible nut is captured in a blast container.

The solid rocket motor ignition commands are issued by the orbiter's computers through the master events controllers to the hold- down pyrotechnic initiator controllers on the mobile launcher platform. They provide the ignition to the hold- down NSDs. The launch processing system monitors the SRB hold- down PICs for low voltage during the last 16 seconds before launch. PIC low voltage will initiate a launch hold.

[Turtle]

cool

[grail]

Acrylic

Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) or poly (methyl 2-methylpropenoate) is the synthetic polymer of methyl methacrylate. This thermoplastic and transparent plastic is sold by the tradenames Plexiglas, R-Cast, Perspex, Plazcryl, Acrylite, Acrylplast, Altuglas, Polycast and Lucite and is commonly called acrylic glass or simply acrylic. The material was developed in 1928 in various laboratories and was brought to market in 1933 by Rohm and Haas Company.

The material is often used as an alternative to glass. Differences in the properties of the two materials include:

PMMA is less dense; its density can range from 1150-1190 kg/m3. This is less than half the density of glass which ranges 2400 to 2800 kg/m3.
PMMA has a higher impact strength than glass and does not shatter but instead breaks into large dull pieces.
PMMA is softer and more easily scratched than glass. This can be overcome with scratch-resistant coatings.
PMMA is typically processed at a lower temperature than glass, just 240-250 degrees Celsius.
Unlike glass, PMMA does not filter ultraviolet (UV) light. PMMA transmits UV light down to 300 nm. Some manufacturers[1] add a coating to PMMA sheets to make them absorb UV light. PMMA molecules have great UV stability compared to polycarbonate.
PMMA allows infrared light of up to 2800 nm wavelength to pass. IR of longer wavelengths, up to 25,000 nm, are essentially blocked. Special formulations of colored PMMA exist to allow specific IR wavelengths to pass while blocking visible light (for remote control or heat sensor applications, for example).
PMMA can be joined using cyanoacrylate cement (so-called "Superglue"), or by using liquid di- or trichloromethane to dissolve the plastic at the joint which then fuses and sets, forming an almost invisible weld. PMMA can also be easily polished to restore cut edges to full transparency.

To produce 1 kg of PMMA, about 2 kg of petroleum is needed. In the presence of oxygen, PMMA ignites at 460° C and burns completely to form only carbon dioxide and water.

PMMA or Acrylic is a versatile material and has been used in a wide range of fields and applications.

Impact resistant substitute for glass

PMMA Acrylic glass is commonly used for constructing residential and commercial aquariums.
PMMA is used in the lenses of exterior lights of automobiles. [3]
The spectator protection in ice hockey stadiums is made of PMMA.
Motorcycle helmet visors
Police vehicles for riot control often have the regular glass replaced with acrylic to protect the occupants from thrown objects.
Lucite was used for windows on the Bathyscaphe Trieste which descended to the lowest point on the ocean floor, the Challenger Deep.
Polycast acrylic sheet is the most widely used material in aircraft transparencies (windows). In applications where the aircraft is pressurized, stretched acrylic is used.

Medical Technologies and Implants
PMMA has a good degree of compatibility with human tissue, and can be used for replacement intraocular lenses in the eye when the original lens has been removed in the treatment of cataracts. Hard contact lenses are frequently made of this material. Soft contact lenses are often made of a related polymer, where acrylate monomers containing one or more hydroxyl groups make them hydrophilic.
In orthopaedics, PMMA bone cement is used to affix implants and to remodel lost bone. It is supplied as a powder with liquid methyl methacrylate (MMA). When mixed these yield a dough-like cement that gradually hardens. Surgeons can judge the curing of the PMMA bone cement by pressing their thumb on it. Although PMMA is biologically compatible, MMA is considered to be an irritant and a possible carcinogen. PMMA has also been linked to cardiopulmonary events in the operating room due to hypotension. [4] Bone cement acts like a grout and not so much like a glue in arthroplasty. Although sticky, it primarily fills the spaces between the prosthesis and the bone preventing motion. It has a Young's modulus between cancellous bone and cortical bone. Thus it is a load sharing entity in the body not causing bone resorption. [5]
Dentures are often made of PMMA, and can be colour-matched to the patient's teeth. In cosmetic surgery, tiny PMMA microspheres suspended in some biological fluid are injected under the skin to reduce wrinkles or scars permanently. PMMA is also used in the creation of time released drugs. The polymer keeps the drug intact until it reaches the intestines by means of reducing the rate of dissolve. Examples include Oxycontin and Ambien CR.

Artistic and Aesthetic uses

Acrylic paint essentially consists of PMMA suspended in water; however since PMMA is hydrophobic, a substance with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups needs to be added to facilitate the suspension.
Modern furniture makers, especially in the 1960s and 1970s, seeking to give their products a space age esthetic incorporated Lucite and other PMMA products into their designs, especially office chairs. Many other products (for example, guitars) are sometimes made with acrylic glass, giving otherwise ordinary objects a transparent or futuristic look.
Perspex has been used as a surface to paint on, for example by Salvador Dalí.
Occasionally used as a glass substitute in picture framing, due to its relatively inexpensive cost, light weight, and shatter-resistant nature, as well as the fact that it can be ordered in larger sizes than standard picture-framing glass. Generally conventional glass is preferred, however.
From approximately the 1960s onward, sculptors began using acrylics, especially taking advantage of the material's flexibility and its capacity to refract and filter light.

Other Uses

The material is used to produce laserdiscs, and sometimes also for DVDs, but the more expensive polycarbonate (also used for CDs) has better properties when exposed to moisture.
Used for the "bubble" on the front of submarines such as Alicia (submarine)
Artificial fingernails are made of acrylic.
In the 1960s, luthier Dan Armstrong developed a line of electric guitars and basses whose bodies were made completely of acrylic. These instruments were marketed under the Ampeg brand.
Recently a blacklight-reactive tattoo ink using PMMA microcapsules was developed. This ink is reportedly safe for use, and claims to be Food and Drug Administration approved for use on wildlife that may enter the food supply.
In semiconductor research and industry, PMMA aids as a resist in the electron beam lithography process. A solution consisting of the polymer in a solvent is used to spin coat silicon wafers with a thin film. Patterns on this can be made by an electron beam (using an electron microscope), deep UV light (shorter wavelength than the standard photolithography process), or X-rays. Exposure to these creates chain scission or (de-cross-linking) within the PMMA, allowing for the selective removal of exposed areas by a chemical developer. PMMA's advantage is that it allows for extremely high resolution (nanoscale) patterns to be made. It is an invaluable tool in nanotechnology.

http://i193.photobucket.com/albums/z216/grail1973/PMMA-repeat.jpg

http://i193.photobucket.com/albums/z216/grail1973/PMMA-chain.jpg


Chemical name poly (methyl 2-methylpropenoate)
Chemical formula (C5O2H8)n
Synonyms polymethylmethacrylate
PMMA
poly (methyl methacrylate)
methyl methacrylate resin
Molecular mass varies
CAS number 9011-14-7
Density 1.19 g/cm³
Melting point 130-140°C (265-285°F)
Boiling point 200.0 °C (392°F)
Glass transition 105 °C
Refractive index 1.492 (λ=589.3 nm)
V-number 55.3
Young's modulus 2.5 GPa
SMILES C[C](C)C(=O)OC

[grail]

Morchella, the true morels, is a genus of edible cup fungi. They produce highly porous ascocarps, prized by gourmet cooks, particularly for French cuisine. Commercial value aside, morels are hunted by thousands of people every year simply for their taste and the joy of the hunt. Morels have been called by many local names; some of the more colorful include "merkels" or "miracles," based on a story of how a mountain family was saved from starvation by eating morels[citation needed], and Dryland fish, due to their similarity in taste to fish.

http://thegreatmorel.com/images/naturefront.jpg

Thought I would post this because I am hungry and craving these tasty morsels.

[grail]

Regular glass isn't colorless it's green. To get colorless you have to use lot's of iron free quartz. Red is made by adding gold. My posts on this thread have been way to long.

[sinAtra]

[QUOTE=HummerTuesdays;1882714]People will pay you for your plasma. http://articles.moneycentral.msn.com/SavingandDebt/SaveMoney/SellingBodyPartsForCash.aspx?GT1=10123

From the above article:

It's true, you can live safely with one kidney. But rumors of $50,000 apiece on the black market overseas are just that; buyers can get one in a village in India, or in Baghdad, for $700.

One urban legend shot down.

[Kool Aid]

Until 2004, the symbol for the democratic party on offical ballots in missouri was the statue of liberty.

when the libertarian party was formed in 76, they adopted the missouri mule, since the democrats had the statue of liberty and in 2004, the democrat party switched to the donkey on its front legs, thus letting the libertarians have thier symbol...

oh and the horizon is only 3.1 miles away

[Hudson]

Joyce Kilmer was a man
Burmese Mountain dogs shed 4 times a year and can climb trees.

[grail]

A handful of U.S. bottling plants still use sugar to sweeten Dr Pepper. Perhaps best known is the Dr Pepper bottling plant in Dublin, Texas, the product of which is known as Dublin Dr Pepper. In the 1980s, plant owner Bill Kloster (1918 – 1999) refused to convert the plant to high fructose corn syrup. Since 2003, Dublin Dr Pepper has expanded its distribution to most of Texas and the Internet. Other bottlers still using sugar include Temple Bottling Company, in Temple, Texas, Ab-Tex in Abilene, and West Jefferson Dr Pepper (WJDP) of West Jefferson, NC.

[Chino Kapone]

the Barcelona chair.

http://dwr.com/images/features/f_7200.jpg

The Barcelon chair, originally deisgned in 1929, is a classic on modern furniture design. It was designed by the German architect Mies van der Rohe for the German Pavillion at the Barcelona International Exhibition intended as a modern throne. This chair can be seen in offices and homes around the world and is classic in design. It is one of the most sought after pieces of modern furniture in the world.

[Grem]

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/GurkhaTraining3.jpg

The Brigade of Gurkhas is the collective term for elite British Army units that are composed of Nepalese soldiers. They are famous for their ever-present kukri blades and use of martial arts.

The first Gurkhas volunteered as mercenaries in the service of the British East India Company after the war in Nepal of 1814-1816. During the war, the British were impressed by the tenacity of the Gurkha soldiers and encouraged them to volunteer for the East India Company.

Gurkhas served as troops of the East India Company in the Pindaree War of 1817, in Bhurtbore in 1826, and the First and Second Sikh Wars in 1846 and 1848. During the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, the Gurkha regiments remained loyal to the British, and became part of the British Indian Army on its formation. The 2nd Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles) defended Hindu Rao's house for over three months, losing 327 out of 490 men. The 60th Rifles (later part of the Royal Green Jackets) fought alongside the Sirmoor Rifles and were so impressed that following the mutiny they insisted 2nd Gurkhas be awarded the honours of adopting their distinctive rifle green uniforms with scarlet edgings and rifle regiment traditions and that they should hold the title of riflemen rather than sepoys. Twelve Gurkha regiments also took part in the relief of Lucknow. Gurkha Regiments in the British Indian Army served in both World Wars.

The British Army

After Indian independence – and partition – in 1947 and under the Tripartite Agreement, six Gurkha regiments joined the post-independence Indian Army. Four Gurkha regiments, the 2nd, 6th, 7th, and 10th Gurkha Rifles, joined the British Army on January 1, 1948. They formed the Brigade of Gurkhas and were stationed in Malaya.

During the Malayan Emergency, Gurkhas fought as jungle soldiers as they had done in Burma. They also formed four new units – Gurkha Engineers, Signals, Transport and Military Police. They were also used for convoy escort duties, security of the new villages and ambushing guerrillas. In the year of Malayan independence, Gurkha Signals units monitored communications during the first free elections.

One Gurkha battalion – 2nd Gurkha Rifles - was stationed in Tidworth, Wiltshire in 1962. On December 7, the unit was deployed to Brunei on a day’s notice at the outbreak of the Brunei Revolt. The forthcoming Indonesian Confrontation saw the formation of the Gurkha Independent Parachute Company on April 1, 1963. It ended up as a commando unit and worked with the Special Air Service. The unit was disbanded in 1972.


After that conflict ended, the Gurkhas were transferred to Hong Kong, where they had security duties during the upheavals of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

The Gurkha brigade’s size was reduced to 8,000 men when the British government changed its defence policy. Hong Kong became their headquarters, while other battalions were stationed in the UK and Brunei.

In 1971 the 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Gurkha Rifles moved to Queen Elizabeth Barracks at Church Crookham, Hampshire, from where they became the first Gurkhas to mount the Queen's Guard. In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus and the 10th Gurkha Rifles was sent to defend the British sovereign base area of Dhekelia. Later they remained there on peacekeeping duties.


On July 1, 1994 the four rifle regiments were merged into one, the Royal Gurkha Rifles, and the three corps regiments (the Gurkha Military Police having been disbanded in 1965) were reduced to squadron strength. On July 1, 1997, the British government handed Hong Kong over to the People's Republic of China, which led to the reduction of the elimination of the local British garrison. Gurkha HQ and recruit training were moved to the UK, and the size of the Brigade of Gurkhas was reduced to 3,400.

Gurkhas have had a role in the Falklands War (1st Battalion of the 7th), Gulf War, NATO operations in Kosovo and UN peacekeeping operations in Bosnia and East Timor. Gurkhas have also served in Sierra Leone.

Brigade HQ is based at Airfield Camp near Netheravon, Wiltshire. A battalion of the RGR is permanently stationed in Brunei.

Gurkha regiments traditionally have British officers, although many officers of all ranks are now themselves Gurkhas - those who wish to receive Queen's Commissions are required to become British subjects. Past officers have described their troops as silent, reliable and loyal.[citation needed]

Gurkhas have one five-month leave in Nepal every three years. Some of them can take their families with them to the UK – this becomes a permanent right once they have reached the rank of Colour Sergeant. Most serve unaccompanied.

Training Depot Brigade of Gurkhas (TDBG)

Although Britain has been recruiting Gurkha soldiers from Nepal since the 19th century, no effort was made to develop a centralized recruit-training system in the Brigade of Gurkhas throughout the pre Second World War era. As a result, recruiting training was conducted at the various Gurkha regimental training centres in India.

The need for such centralized training establishments became apparent in the late 1940s following India's national independence, and subsequently the TDBG was established on 15 August 1951 at Sungai Petani, Kedah, Malaya.

With Malaya's independence, however, the TDBG was once again relocated to Malaya Lines in the New Territories, Hong Kong in 1971. At the TDBG in Hong Kong, recruits were taught basic English alongside military subjects such as field craft, drill, weapon-handling etc. More importantly, being in a modern city like Hong Kong, these young recruits from the hills of Nepal were given the opportunity to experience life in a different culture and environment. Such experience would be crucial for their future deployments in different corners of the world.

Due to Hong Kong's handover from the UK to China, the TDBG was closed down in December 1994. However, it was reconstituted immediately as the Gurkha Training Wing (GTW) at Queen Elizabeth Barracks at Church Crookham, Hampshire in the UK. In December 1999, the GTW moved to Helles Barracks at Catterick Garrison in North Yorkshire and became Gurkha Company, 3rd Battalion, Infantry Training Centre (ITC). Organized in two wings, A(Imphal) Wing and B(Meiktila) Wing, the company currently maintains 72 permanent staff of all ranks and 230 recruits.

Selection and Basic Training

First Stage: Hill Selection

Hill selections are held at various locations in Nepal. There are usually 30 applicants for every place available at this stage. Potential recruits must satisfy the following requirements before proceeding to the second stage:

* Age between 17 and 22
* Height at least 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m)
* Weight at least 7 stone 12 pounds (110 pounds, or 50 kilograms)
* Good health
* Educational requirement

Second Stage: Pokhara Selection Centre

This stage of the selection process would last for 3 weeks. All candidates must pass the following tests in order to proceed further:

* English grammar
* Mathematics
* Fitness test, which included exercises and a doko race (carrying 75 pounds of stones and run up a 4.2 kilometre long steep course)
* Initiative test
* Final interview

Third Stage: Basic Training at GTW Infantry Training Centre Catterick

This is a nine-month long training course that includes:

* Language training (3 months)
* Military skills
* Western culture and customs

Final Stage: Passing Out

The graduation of successful recruits will be marked by a passing out parade at the end of the basic training course. Based on their progress and results they will then be allotted to various positions within the Brigade of Gurkhas. In general those who obtained better results in the mathematics test during the second stage of selection would be offered postings to the Queen's Gurkha Signals or the Queen's Gurkha Engineers.

[grail]

Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating the molten glass on a bed of molten tin. This method gives the glass uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern window glass is float glass.

Glass is generally treated as an amorphous solid rather than a liquid, though different views can be justified since characterizing glass as either 'solid' or 'liquid' is not an entirely straightforward matter. However, the notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis.

The observation that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a matter of centuries. It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid. The likely source of this belief is that when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the Crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk would be thicker because of centrifugal forces.

[Hudson]

Up until the mid 1840's Thousands of Pigs were let loose in the Wall Street area of NYC to eat garbage as a sanitation method.

Hitler and Hemingway had 2 things in common:
1) A love of the composer Wagner.
2) Both had only one testicle.

Ian Flemming...of James Bond fame Penned the children's standard Chitty Chitty Bang Bang

[THE FEZ MAN]

Float glass is a sheet of glass made by floating the molten glass on a bed of molten tin. This method gives the glass uniform thickness and very flat surfaces. Modern window glass is float glass.

Glass is generally treated as an amorphous solid rather than a liquid, though different views can be justified since characterizing glass as either 'solid' or 'liquid' is not an entirely straightforward matter. However, the notion that glass flows to an appreciable extent over extended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical analysis.

The observation that old windows are often thicker at the bottom than at the top is often offered as supporting evidence for the view that glass flows over a matter of centuries. It is then assumed that the glass was once uniform, but has flowed to its new shape, which is a property of liquid. The likely source of this belief is that when panes of glass were commonly made by glassblowers, the technique used was to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate (the Crown glass process, described above). This plate was then cut to fit a window. The pieces were not, however, absolutely flat; the edges of the disk would be thicker because of centrifugal forces.

i knew that,

ill add that borosilicate glass is not really glass but a form of ceramic.

the sand from new jersey is the preferd silica for glass making, some of the oldest glass manufactures in the country are there

[HummerTuesdays]

the sand from new jersey is the preferd silica for glass making, some of the oldest glass manufactures in the country are there

I had no idea Jersey was good for something. :)

[grail]

In the year 1000, Scotland was called the Kingdom of Alba.

http://www.euratlas.com/big/big1000.htm

[Fr. Dougal]

The 1986 move "Short Circuit" was originally conceived to be a thriller, with the Johnny Five robot as an out-of-control villain.

But they decided to make it a family movie. I wonder what it would have been like if they left it alone...

[THE FEZ MAN]

I had no idea Jersey was good for something. :)


they also sell sand to the aribs, apparently the sand that is over there is un suitable for lots of commercial things, building, mud for oil wells, ect.

uggg why do i know so much about fucking sand

[grail]

Poly (ethylene glycol) is non-toxic and is used in a variety of products. It is the basis of a number of laxatives (e.g. macrogol-containing products such as Movicol and polyethylene glycol 3350, or MiraLax or GlycoLax). It is the basis of many skin creams, as cetomacrogol, and sexual lubricants, frequently combined with glycerin. Whole bowel irrigation (polyethylene glycol with added electrolytes) is used for bowel preparation before surgery or colonoscopy and drug overdoses. It is sold under the brand names GoLYTELY, GlycoLax, Fortrans and Colyte. When attached to various protein medications, poly (ethylene glycol) allows a slowed clearance of the carried protein from the blood. This makes for a longer acting medicinal effect and reduces toxicity, and it allows longer dosing intervals. Examples include PEG-interferon alpha which is used to treat hepatitis C and PEG-filgrastim (Neulasta®) which is used to treat neutropenia.

PEG is included in many or all formulations of the soft drink Dr Pepper, purportedly as an anti-foaming agent.

PEG is used in a number of toothpastes as a dispersant; it binds water and helps keep gum uniform throughout the toothpaste. It is also under investigation for use in body armor [7] and tattoos to monitor diabetes[8]. Functional groups of PEG give polyurethane elastomers their "rubberiness", for applications such as foams (foam rubber) and fibers (spandex). Its backbone structure is analogous to that of silicone, another elastomer.

The difference in this and anti-freeze (ethylene glycol) is in the polymerization (linking of the monomer chains).

[Mort]

Some historical oddities...

- The Presidents of the Union and Confederacy, Lincoln and Davis, were both born in Kentucky.

- Presidents Jefferson and Adams both died on the same day, July 4th, 1826. Which also happened to be the 50th anniversery of the Declaration of Independance, which both signed.

- Robert E. Lee was married to Martha Washington's granddaughter, and the Arlington National Cemetary was built on his seized estate.

- During his presidency, George Washington was the largest brewer of beer in the United States.

- John Wilkes Booth did not act alone. He and his team were to assassinate the President, Vice President, and Secretary of State all in one night, but Sec. of State William Seward survived his attack, and the man charged with killing Vice President Johnson backed out at the last moment.

- When Booth escaped from Ford's Theatre, he yelled out "Sic Semper Tyrannis," (Thus Always to Tyrants), which is the state motto of Virginia.

- Abraham Lincoln's brother-in-law was a Confederate General.

- Jimmy Carter was the first president to be born in a hospital.

- James Monroe's famous Monroe Doctorine was actually written by his secretary of state, John Quincy Adams.

- Alexander Grahm Bell is credited with inventing the telephone because he beat a competitor to the patent office by a few hours.

- Napolean Bonaparte stood 5' 6", which was average height for his time.

[Hudson]

I just saw a show on the History Channel......I was right about zero!!!!!!!

[Glenn Dandy]

a long time ago people would spread straw on the dirt floor of their cabins to warm it... the problem would be that when the door was opened the straw would blow all over the place.
Straw was called " thresh" in those days.. so a piece of wood was placed at the door to hold the thresh in place.

" THRESHOLD"

[Smokezilla]

Little known fact:

Walt Disney was afraid of mice.

[Buster H]

the longest word in the english language is: pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis

Pronunciation[noo-muh-noh-uhl-truh-mahy-kruh-skop-ik-sil-i-koh-vol-key-noh-koh-nee-oh-sis, nyoo-]
an obscure term ostensibly referring to a lung disease caused by silica dust, sometimes cited as one of the longest words in the English language.

[Hudson]

What Recent terrorist leader was a Cheetos freak...Bin Laden or Hussein? I need to resolve a a bet.

[Glenn Dandy]

the longest word in the english language is: pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis

and the ironic thing is it means "did ya?"

[Buster H]

What Recent terrorist leader was a Cheetos freak...Bin Laden or Hussein? I need to resolve a a bet.

not sure about cheetos, but Hussein loved Doritos. Used to soak them in water first to soften them up

[THE FEZ MAN]

the longest word in the english language is: pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis

i thought i had that once, as a matter of fact its almost common in autobody workers, miners, and sand blasters. but new safety regs have almost eliminated it

[bethm1b]

Little known fact:

Walt Disney was afraid of mice.

What a fag.

[Voss's Tumor]

the longest word in the english language is: pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcanoconiosis

I always thought it was antidissestablishmentarianism.

Oh well, they're both worth a fuck of a lot in Scrabble

[Chino Kapone]

http://dwr.com/images/features/f_8099.jpg
Corbusier chaise lounge.

Originally designed in 1928 as the ultimate relaxing chair. The design is to contour to the human body. The frame adjusts along the base from upright to full recline. It is one of the most comfortable chairs/chaise around.

Ive got one in my bedroom. It makes for a fantastic fuck chair. Get one and your chick will love it. :D

[izzy izkowitz]

You can shake it,
You can squeeze it.
You can beat it against the wall.
But ya gotta put it back in your pants before the last drop will fall.

http://i4.photobucket.com/albums/y103/umo/5.jpg

I was alway taught that no matter how hard you shake or dance, the last drop will always go down your pants.

a wise man once told me that you learn something new every day, whether you want to or not.

[Fr. Dougal]

Declaration of Independence Facts
Questions & Answers

Q. Is anything written on the back of the Declaration of Independence?

A. Yes, there is writing on the back of the original, signed Declaration of Independence. But it is not invisible, nor does it include a map, as the Disney feature film, National Treasure, suggests. The writing on the back reads "Original Declaration of Independence, dated 4th July 1776," and it appears on the bottom of the document, upside down. To learn more, read the article, The Flip Side of History (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/treasure/flip_side_of_history.html). Please note that the back of the Declaration of Independence is not on display in the Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom.

Q. Is the original Declaration of Independence written on paper?

A. No, the original was engrossed on parchment which is an animal skin specially treated with lime and stretched to create a strong, long-lasting writing support. The printed version is on paper and was read aloud from town squares throughout the colonies, so that those who could not read would receive the news about intended separation from England.

Q. Do other copies of the Declaration of Independence exist?

A. Yes, there are 25 copies (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration_history.html#appendixa) known to exist of what is commonly referred to as "the Dunlap broadside (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/treasure/dunlap_broadside.html)," 20 owned by American institutions, 2 by British institutions, and 3 by private owners.

The Dunlap Broadside copies were printed on paper on the night of July 4,— and thus are contemporary with the original Declaration that is engrossed on parchment. Given the great interest in and popularity of the document to the American people, many facsimile copies of the Declaration have been made over the years. These copies have been printed in many sizes and formats as souvenirs and for the purpose of display in governmental and other offices and schoolrooms across the nation.

Q. Was Thomas Jefferson the only person involved in writing the Declaration of Independence?

A. Jefferson was the author of the document and was a member of the Committee of Five (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration_history.html#committee) that was appointed to draft a statement presenting to the world the colonies case for independence. The committee consisted of two New England men, John Adams of Massachusetts and Roger Sherman of Connecticut; two men from the Middle Colonies, Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania and Robert R. Livingston of New York; and one southerner, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia.

Q. Has the Declaration of Independence always been at the National Archives in Washington, DC?

A. No, after the signing ceremony on August 2, 1776, the Declaration was most likely filed in Philadelphia in the office of Charles Thomson, who served as the Secretary of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1789. The document probably accompanied the Continental Congress as the body traveled during the uncertain months and years of the Revolution.

On December 13, 1952, the Declaration, along with the Constitution and Bill of Rights were formally delivered into the custody of Archivist of the United States Wayne Grover and enshrined at a ceremony on December 15, 1952, attended by President Harry S. Truman. For more information about the document's travels see Travels of the Declaration of Independence – A Time Line (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/treasure/declaration_travels.html).

Q. Is the encasement bullet-resistant?

A. Yes, the case is constructed of ballistically resistant materials to include the glass.

Q. Who constructed the new encasements and what are they made of?

A. The new encasements, which look like large, deep picture frames, were designed to meet National Archives specifications that ensure the preservation of the Charters for future generations. The encasements were constructed by the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) of titanium and aluminum. The frames are gold plated to evoke the style of historic frames.

Q. Are other documents also encased in this way?

A. Yes, the Charters of Freedom (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/treasure/declaration_travels.html) – the Constitution (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/constitution.html), the Bill of Rights (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/bill_of_rights.html), and the Declaration of Independence (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration.html) – are all encased in this way.

Did You Know?

* The Declaration of Independence was adopted by 12 of 13 colonies (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration_history.html#committee) (New York not voting) on July 4, 1776, but wasn't actually signed by all the delegates until August 2, 1776.
* Engrossing (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration_history.html#engrossed) is the process of preparing an official document in a large, clear hand. Timothy Matlack, a Pennsylvanian who had assisted the Secretary of the Congress, Charles Thomson, was probably the engrosser of the Declaration.
* John Hancock, the President of the Congress, was the first to sign the sheet of parchment measuring 24¼ by 29¾ inches.
* A handprint appears on the bottom left corner of the Declaration of Independence. The origins and circumstances of the handprint are not known. The document was handled, rolled, and traveled about and exhibited extensively in its early life. Attempting to clean the handprint and other soil that has worked into the parchment could damage the fragile document.
* The official title of the head of the National Archives and Records Administration is Archivist of the United States (http://www.archives.gov/about/info/archivist-biography.html).
* The Declaration of Independence is housed in a specially sealed encasement containing the inert gas argon with a controlled amount of humidity to keep the parchment flexible. The encasement is constructed of ballistically resistant materials. The document is closely guarded.
* The movie National Treasure was not filmed inside the National Archives Building. A reproduction of the Declaration of Independence was used in filming the movie.
* In the Rotunda, above the Charters of Freedom, the murals (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_murals.html) by Barry Faulkner have been removed, cleaned, and restored. Although they don't depict actual historical events, they help convey the importance of the Charters of Freedom by showing a presentation of the draft of the Declaration of Independence (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_mural_declaration_b.html) to John Hancock by Jefferson in 1776 and a presentation of the Constitution (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_mural_constitution_b.html) to George Washington by Madison in 1787.
* If you were a member of the Second Continental Congress in 1776, you were a rebel and considered a traitor by the King of England. You knew that a reward had been posted for the capture of certain prominent rebel leaders and signing your name to the Declaration (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/impact_join_the_signers.html) meant that you pledged your life, your fortune, and your sacred honor to the cause of freedom.
* Thomas Jefferson, author of the Declaration of Independence and member of the Committee of Five (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/declaration_history.html#committee) died on July 4, 1826. And John Adams, also a committee member, died on the same day.
* The Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights—known collectively as the Charters of Freedom, were removed from display on July 5, 2001, and have undergone long-planned conservation treatment (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_preservation_01.html) and are sealed in new state-of-the-art encasements. On September 17, 2003, the renovated Rotunda (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/visit/visit_renovation_building_renovation.html) was rededicated, and the newly re-encased Charters of Freedom (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/visit/visit_renovation_charters_re-encasement.html) were unveiled.

[Glenn Dandy]

I LOVE THESE THINGS[/COLOR]
n George Washington's days, there were no cameras. One's image was

either sculpted or painted. Some paintings of George Washington

showed him standing behind a desk with one arm behind his back while

others showed both legs
and both arms. Prices charged by painters were not based

on how many people were to be painted, but by how many limbs were to

be painted. Arms and legs are "limbs," therefore painting them would

cost the buyer more. Hence the _expression, "Okay, but it'll cost

you an arm and a leg."



As incredible as it sounds, men and women took baths only twice a

year (May and October)! Women kept their hair covered, while men

shaved their heads (because of lice and bugs) and wore wigs. Wealthy

men could afford good wigs made from wool. They couldn't wash the

wigs, so to clean them they would carve out a loaf of bread, put the

wig in the shell, and bake it for 30 minutes. The heat would make

the wig big and fluffy, hence the term "big wig." Today we often use the

term "here comes the Big Wig" because someone appears to be or is

powerful and wealthy.



In the late
1700s, many houses consisted of a large room with only

one chair. Commonly, a long wide board folded down from the wall,

and was used for dining. The "head of the household" always sat in

the chair while everyone else ate sitting on the floor Occasionally

a guest, who was usually a man, would be invited to sit in this chair

during a
meal.



To sit in the chair meant you were important and in charge. They

called the one sitting in the chair the "chair man." Today in

business, we use the expression or title "Chairman" or "Chairman of the Board."



Personal hygiene left much room for improvement. As a result, many

women and men had developed acne scars by adulthood. The women would

spread bee's wax over their facial skin to smooth out their

complexions. When they were speaking to each other, if a woman began

to stare at another woman's face she was told, "mind your own bee's

wax." Should the woman smile, the wax would crack, hence the term

"crack a smile" In addition, when they sat too close to the fire,

the wax would melt. Therefore, the expression "losing face."



Ladies wore corsets, which would lace up in the front. A proper and

dignified woman, as in "straight laced" .. . .
Wore a tightly tied lace.

Common entertainment included playing cards. However, there was a

tax levied when purchasing playing cards but only applicable to the

"Ace of Spades." To avoid paying the tax, people would purchase 51

cards instead.

Yet, since most games require 52 cards, these people were thought to

be stupid or dumb because they weren't "playing with a full deck."





Early politicians required feedback from the public to determine what the

people considered important. Since there were no telephones, TV's or

radios, the politicians sent their assistants to local taverns,

pubs, and bars. They were told to "go sip some ale" and listen to people's

conversations and political concerns. Many assistants were

dispatched at different times. "You go sip here" and "You go sip

there." The two words "go sip" were eventually combined when

referring to the local opinion and, thus we have the term "gossip."



At local taverns, pubs, and bars, people drank from pint and

quart-sized containers. A bar maid's job was to keep an eye on the

customers and keep the drinks coming. She had to pay close attention

and remember who was drinking in "pints" and who was
drinking in

"quarts," hence the term "minding your "P's and Q's."



One more: bet you didn't know this!

In the heyday of sailing ships, all war ships and many freighters carried

iron cannons. Those cannons fired round iron cannon balls. It was

necessary to keep a good supply near the cannon. However, how to

prevent them from rolling about the deck? The best storage method

devised was a square-based pyramid with one ball on top, resting on

four resting on nine, which rested on sixteen. Thus, a supply of 30

cannon balls could be stacked in a small area right next to the cannon.

There was only one problem...how to prevent the bottom layer from sliding or rolling

from under the others. The solution was a metal plate called a "Monkey" with

16 round indentations.



However, if this plate were made of iron, the iron balls would

quickly rust to
it. The solution to the rusting problem was to make

"Brass Monkeys." Few land lubbers realize that brass contracts much

more and much faster than iron when chilled. Consequently, when the

temperature dropped too far, the brass indentations would shrink so

much that the iron cannonballs would come right off the monkey.

Thus, it was
quite literally, "Cold enough to freeze the balls off a

brass monkey." (All this time, you thought that was an improper

expression, didn't you.)



You must send this fabulous bit of historic knowledge to any and all your

unsuspecting friends.

If you don't, your floppy is going to fall off your hard drive and kill your mouse!

[Budyzir]

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a4/GurkhaTraining3.jpg

The Brigade of Gurkhas is the collective term for elite British Army units that are composed of Nepalese soldiers. They are famous for their ever-present kukri blades and use of martial arts.

The first Gurkhas volunteered as mercenaries in the service of the British East India Company after the war in Nepal of 1814-1816. During the war, the British were impressed by the tenacity of the Gurkha soldiers and encouraged them to volunteer for the East India Company.

Gurkhas served as troops of the East India Company in the Pindaree War of 1817, in Bhurtbore in 1826, and the First and Second Sikh Wars in 1846 and 1848. During the Sepoy Mutiny in 1857, the Gurkha regiments remained loyal to the British, and became part of the British Indian Army on its formation. The 2nd Gurkha Rifles (The Sirmoor Rifles) defended Hindu Rao's house for over three months, losing 327 out of 490 men. The 60th Rifles (later part of the Royal Green Jackets) fought alongside the Sirmoor Rifles and were so impressed that following the mutiny they insisted 2nd Gurkhas be awarded the honours of adopting their distinctive rifle green uniforms with scarlet edgings and rifle regiment traditions and that they should hold the title of riflemen rather than sepoys. Twelve Gurkha regiments also took part in the relief of Lucknow. Gurkha Regiments in the British Indian Army served in both World Wars.

The British Army

After Indian independence – and partition – in 1947 and under the Tripartite Agreement, six Gurkha regiments joined the post-independence Indian Army. Four Gurkha regiments, the 2nd, 6th, 7th, and 10th Gurkha Rifles, joined the British Army on January 1, 1948. They formed the Brigade of Gurkhas and were stationed in Malaya.

During the Malayan Emergency, Gurkhas fought as jungle soldiers as they had done in Burma. They also formed four new units – Gurkha Engineers, Signals, Transport and Military Police. They were also used for convoy escort duties, security of the new villages and ambushing guerrillas. In the year of Malayan independence, Gurkha Signals units monitored communications during the first free elections.

One Gurkha battalion – 2nd Gurkha Rifles - was stationed in Tidworth, Wiltshire in 1962. On December 7, the unit was deployed to Brunei on a day’s notice at the outbreak of the Brunei Revolt. The forthcoming Indonesian Confrontation saw the formation of the Gurkha Independent Parachute Company on April 1, 1963. It ended up as a commando unit and worked with the Special Air Service. The unit was disbanded in 1972.


After that conflict ended, the Gurkhas were transferred to Hong Kong, where they had security duties during the upheavals of the Chinese Cultural Revolution.

The Gurkha brigade’s size was reduced to 8,000 men when the British government changed its defence policy. Hong Kong became their headquarters, while other battalions were stationed in the UK and Brunei.

In 1971 the 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Gurkha Rifles moved to Queen Elizabeth Barracks at Church Crookham, Hampshire, from where they became the first Gurkhas to mount the Queen's Guard. In 1974 Turkey invaded Cyprus and the 10th Gurkha Rifles was sent to defend the British sovereign base area of Dhekelia. Later they remained there on peacekeeping duties.


On July 1, 1994 the four rifle regiments were merged into one, the Royal Gurkha Rifles, and the three corps regiments (the Gurkha Military Police having been disbanded in 1965) were reduced to squadron strength. On July 1, 1997, the British government handed Hong Kong over to the People's Republic of China, which led to the reduction of the elimination of the local British garrison. Gurkha HQ and recruit training were moved to the UK, and the size of the Brigade of Gurkhas was reduced to 3,400.

Gurkhas have had a role in the Falklands War (1st Battalion of the 7th), Gulf War, NATO operations in Kosovo and UN peacekeeping operations in Bosnia and East Timor. Gurkhas have also served in Sierra Leone.

Brigade HQ is based at Airfield Camp near Netheravon, Wiltshire. A battalion of the RGR is permanently stationed in Brunei.

Gurkha regiments traditionally have British officers, although many officers of all ranks are now themselves Gurkhas - those who wish to receive Queen's Commissions are required to become British subjects. Past officers have described their troops as silent, reliable and loyal.[citation needed]

Gurkhas have one five-month leave in Nepal every three years. Some of them can take their families with them to the UK – this becomes a permanent right once they have reached the rank of Colour Sergeant. Most serve unaccompanied.

Training Depot Brigade of Gurkhas (TDBG)

Although Britain has been recruiting Gurkha soldiers from Nepal since the 19th century, no effort was made to develop a centralized recruit-training system in the Brigade of Gurkhas throughout the pre Second World War era. As a result, recruiting training was conducted at the various Gurkha regimental training centres in India.

The need for such centralized training establishments became apparent in the late 1940s following India's national independence, and subsequently the TDBG was established on 15 August 1951 at Sungai Petani, Kedah, Malaya.

With Malaya's independence, however, the TDBG was once again relocated to Malaya Lines in the New Territories, Hong Kong in 1971. At the TDBG in Hong Kong, recruits were taught basic English alongside military subjects such as field craft, drill, weapon-handling etc. More importantly, being in a modern city like Hong Kong, these young recruits from the hills of Nepal were given the opportunity to experience life in a different culture and environment. Such experience would be crucial for their future deployments in different corners of the world.

Due to Hong Kong's handover from the UK to China, the TDBG was closed down in December 1994. However, it was reconstituted immediately as the Gurkha Training Wing (GTW) at Queen Elizabeth Barracks at Church Crookham, Hampshire in the UK. In December 1999, the GTW moved to Helles Barracks at Catterick Garrison in North Yorkshire and became Gurkha Company, 3rd Battalion, Infantry Training Centre (ITC). Organized in two wings, A(Imphal) Wing and B(Meiktila) Wing, the company currently maintains 72 permanent staff of all ranks and 230 recruits.

Selection and Basic Training

First Stage: Hill Selection

Hill selections are held at various locations in Nepal. There are usually 30 applicants for every place available at this stage. Potential recruits must satisfy the following requirements before proceeding to the second stage:

* Age between 17 and 22
* Height at least 5 feet 2 inches (1.57 m)
* Weight at least 7 stone 12 pounds (110 pounds, or 50 kilograms)
* Good health
* Educational requirement

Second Stage: Pokhara Selection Centre

This stage of the selection process would last for 3 weeks. All candidates must pass the following tests in order to proceed further:

* English grammar
* Mathematics
* Fitness test, which included exercises and a doko race (carrying 75 pounds of stones and run up a 4.2 kilometre long steep course)
* Initiative test
* Final interview

Third Stage: Basic Training at GTW Infantry Training Centre Catterick

This is a nine-month long training course that includes:

* Language training (3 months)
* Military skills
* Western culture and customs

Final Stage: Passing Out

The graduation of successful recruits will be marked by a passing out parade at the end of the basic training course. Based on their progress and results they will then be allotted to various positions within the Brigade of Gurkhas. In general those who obtained better results in the mathematics test during the second stage of selection would be offered postings to the Queen's Gurkha Signals or the Queen's Gurkha Engineers.

Very cool, I've heard much about the Gurkhas, nice to it summarized this way.

[Hydrosludge]

Load sensing is a term used to describe a type of pump control employed in open circuits. It is so called because the load-induced pressure downstream of an orifice is sensed and pump flow adjusted to maintain a constant pressure drop (and therefore flow) across the orifice. The 'orifice' is usually a directional control valve with proportional flow characteristics, but a needle valve or even a fixed orifice can be used, depending on the application.

A load sensing circuit typically comprises a variable displacement pump, usually axial-piston design, fitted with a load sensing controller, and a directional control valve with an integral load-signal gallery. The load-signal gallery in the directional control valve connects the A and B ports of each of the control valve sections through a series of shuttle valves. This ensures that the actuator with the highest load pressure is sensed and fed back to the pump.

[Turtle]

Little known fact:

Walt Disney was afraid of mice.

True?

[THE FEZ MAN]

ROK marines are bad ass mother fuckers. my father served with them in Viet Nam

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps

[Hydrosludge]

ROK marines are bad ass mother fuckers. my father served with them in Viet Nam

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Korea_Marine_Corps

Not as bad ass as the Rock Apes

[izzy izkowitz]

if you don't eat your meat, you can't have any pudding

[Turtle]

Blood pudding is a sausage made by cooking pig blood until it congeals when cooled resulting in a meat product.

[MyKneeGrows]

Reading through 7 pages of this thread will pass some time. And learn me something too.

[Turtle]

Ethanol is an alcohol that is used in gasoline—resulting in a cleaner-burning fuel with higher octane. Ethanol is currently blended into about 46 percent of the nation’s fuel supply.

Ethanol has been blended in gasoline for decades—and billions of miles have been driven on ethanol-blended fuels.

Corn is the primary feedstock for ethanol production. About 18 percent of the nation’s corn crop went into ethanol in 2006—some 2.15 billion bushels. Ethanol can also be made from other grains such as sorghum as well as from “biomass” sources such as corn cobs, cornstalks, wheat straw, rice straw, switchgrass, vegetable and forestry waste and other organic matter.

[grail]

Splenda or sucrolose is made by replacing 3 of the hydroxyl groups (OH- ions) on sucrose (sugar) with chlorine.

[Aero 1]

Bee's are responsible for 1/3rd the food we eat.

Canada is the second largest county in the world

our dollar is damn near worth as much as the USA's now

the beaver is our national animal

a one dollar coin is the loonie, a two dollar coin is the toonie

Lacrosse is our national sport

The leader of our country is the Prime Minister, the leaders of our provinces and territories are Premiers

Canadians are cunts.

[Garyisajoke]

Doing a clean install on your computer allows you to keep the files in My Documents.... at least, that's what someone told me yesterday, which led me to almost clean install Vista on my system without backing up my files.

[Turtle]

The Asian Hornet is about 1.5 inches long and has a wing span of about 3 inches, making it the largest hornet in the world. The stinger of this hornet is about a quarter-inch in length, and injects an especially potent venom that can damage tissue, the sensation has been described as feeling like a hot nail being driven into flesh. About 70 people die each year in Japan after being stung by giant hornets.
A few notes about the venom, stinger & hornet:
• The venom contains at least eight distinct chemicals, some of which damage tissue, some of which cause pain, and at least one which has an odor that attracts more hornets to the victim.
• The venom contains 5% acetylcholine, a greater concentration than is present in bee or other wasp venoms. Acetylcholine stimulates the pain nerve fibres, intensifying the pain of the sting.
• The Asian Hornet uses its large crushing mandibles, rather than its sting, to kill prey.
• The venom of the Asian giant hornet is more toxic than that of most other bees or wasps, giving this species one of the greatest lethal capacities per colony.
• Like all hornets, it has a barbless stinger, allowing it to sting repeatedly.
The hornets can fly 60 miles a day and reach speeds of 25 mph.

[izzy izkowitz]

[edit] Words for smegma
Look up Smegma in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.In the English language, slang terms for smegma tend to focus on its alleged resemblance (and similar smell) to a dairy product, hence helmet-dale, bell-end, weiner juice, brie, organzola, dick cheese, knobcheese, cottage shaft cheese, dick butter, duck butter, cheese-wheel, shaft yogurt, bell cheese, bell cheddar, man cheese, helmet cheese, and fumunda (from-under) cheese, prickorino romano, penisean, cockarella, cock curd, zach scum(after zach *****), nutzerella, phallus flan.
In Denmark it is called in everyday language nakkeost (which translates as neck cheese)
In Germany it is called with slang words Schwanzkäse, Eichelkäse and Nillekäs (or Nillekehs).
In Spain it is called requesón, a cheese similar to riccotta.
In Portugal is also called requeijão, the same as in Spanish.
In the Philippines, the term kupal is used for males and hima (pronounced as hee-muh) for females, although these are considered vulgar.
In Icelandic it is often simply referred to as ostur, or cheese; although the words reðurfarði or limfarði (both of which meaning penile-cheese) and forhúðarostur "foreskin's cheese" are used.
In Japan the slang chinko shigoto is used; the literal translation being dick job.
In Finnish military slang, it is called sissijuusto (guerrilla cheese) as it often appears after several weeks of combat training without a shower.
In Sweden it is known as flänsost, flange or pipe-rim cheese
In Chilean slang, smegma is called quesillo de cuneta.
In Hungarian it is called túró, meaning qark.
In Norway, it is known as "kukost", slang meaning "cock cheese", in the city of Trondheim smegma is also refered to as "flæns".
In the Swahili language, smegma is called "pumba" [1], not to be confused with "pumbaa", which means "careless" and is the name of the warthog in The Lion King.

[BCH]

Ethanol is an alcohol that is used in gasoline—resulting in a cleaner-burning fuel with higher octane. Ethanol is currently blended into about 46 percent of the nation’s fuel supply.

Ethanol has been blended in gasoline for decades—and billions of miles have been driven on ethanol-blended fuels.

Corn is the primary feedstock for ethanol production. About 18 percent of the nation’s corn crop went into ethanol in 2006—some 2.15 billion bushels. Ethanol can also be made from other grains such as sorghum as well as from “biomass” sources such as corn cobs, cornstalks, wheat straw, rice straw, switchgrass, vegetable and forestry waste and other organic matter.


Just what we need, automobile fuel competing with livestock feed. No wonder milk and beef have gone up in price recently with the increasing demand for ethanol. All this when we already have a viable automobile fuel. We just need the balls to go and get it. (and no I don't mean in the middle east)

[Turtle]

Just what we need, automobile fuel competing with livestock feed. No wonder milk and beef have gone up in price recently with the increasing demand for ethanol. All this when we already have a viable automobile fuel. We just need the balls to go and get it. (and no I don't mean in the middle east)

California, Oregon and Washington have nearly 11 billion barrels of undiscovered oil and 19 trillion cubic feet of undiscovered gas in the region may be recoverable using existing technology. Half of the undiscovered, conventionally recoverable oil and gas in the region may be economically recoverable under existing conditions.

Some officials in Alaska, suggest that peak production from that state could exceed 1.3 million barrels a day.

The Gulf of Mexico has at least 60 billion barrels of oil and 370 trillion cubic feet of natural gas.

We need to build more refineries.

[Fr. Dougal]

We need to build more refineries.

Exactly. It's sick how many people don't realize that. The U.S. doesn't need oil. It needs REFINED oil. We have a shitload of our own oil already. We just have no way to refine it all to make it useable. It's like putting a drinking straw in a swimming pool. When what we really need is a giant effin' pipe in that pool.

[thetick130]

polymers give our current motor oil its multigrade status (ie. 10W30 5W40) Without this polymer added to our engines, the oil would either not flow in the winter or be too thin in the summer. therefore the polymer acts to give a mixture of the two, being able to flow in the winter and stay thick enough to effectively lubercate neccessary parts. This is achieved because as the oil heats up, the polymer unravels to become a longer, straighter chain that binds to the oil molecules, thereby thickening the oil under higher temperatures.

[Turtle]

Dow Jones industrial Average: Today, the average consists of 30 of the largest and most widely held public companies in the United States. The "industrial" portion of the name is largely historical—many of the 30 modern components have little to do with heavy industry. To compensate for the effects of stock splits and other adjustments, it is currently a scaled average, not the actual average of the prices of its component stocks—the sum of the component prices is divided by a divisor, which changes over time, to generate the value of the index.
From Wikipedia,

[Kris_LTRMa]

Some day I'm going to win Jeopardy! and will have this threat to thank ;)

[Kris_LTRMa]

For every human being on earth, there are about 200 million insects.

[Turtle]

Like all insects, ants have six legs. Each leg has three joints. The legs of the ant are very strong so they can run very quickly. If a man could run as fast for his size as an ant can, he could run as fast as a racehorse. Ants can lift 20 times their own body weight. An ant brain has about 250 000 brain cells. A human brain has 10,000 million so a colony of 40,000 ants has collectively the same size brain as a human. The average life expectancy of an ant is 45-60 days. Ants use their antenae not only for touch, but also for their sense of smell. The head of the ant has a pair of large, strong jaws. The jaws open and shut sideways like a pair of scissors. Adult ants cannot chew and swallow solid food. Instead they swallow the juice which they squeeze from pieces of food. They throw away the dry part that is left over. The ant has two eyes, each eye is made of many smaller eyes. They are called compound eyes. The abdomen of the ant contains two stomachs. One stomach holds the food for itself and second stomach is for food to be shared with other ants. Like all insects, the outside of their body is covered with a hard armour this is called the exoskeleton. Ants have four distinct growing stages, the egg, larva, pupa and the adult. Biologists classify ants as a special group of wasps. (Hymenoptera Formicidae) There are over 10000 known species of ants. Each ant colony has at least one or more queens.

[bethm1b]

The legs of the ant are very strong so they can run very quickly


Or hit the gas pedal of his Shelby.

[Turtle]

Carroll Shelby has had a remarkably long career as a driver, owner, team manager, manufacturer, consultant, and visionary.

Early in his career, Carroll's accomplishments as a race car driver included breaking land speed records at Bonneville in 1954 for Austin Healey and winning the 24-hour Le Mans in 1959 alongside teammate Roy Salvadori. As a team manager, Carroll was a part of the FIA World Grand Touring Championship as well as Ford GT victories at Le Mans.

When his health caused him to give up racing in 1960, Carroll got out of the driver's seat and turned his attention to design. He had a vision of creating a racecar made from a lightweight European chassis with American V8 power.

The result of this vision was what is considered perhaps the greatest sports car and one of the fastest road cars ever constructed - the Shelby Cobra. The aluminum-bodied 289 and 427 Cobra models and the subsequent Shelby Mustangs he built for Ford, made Carroll Shelby a household name in the 1960s.

After undergoing successful heart transplant surgery, a very grateful Carroll decided to use his reputable name for a good cause. In October 1991 he created the Carroll Shelby Children's Foundation™, dedicated to providing assistance for acute coronary and kidney care for children in need.

With the foundation in place, Shelby extended his professional reach into the businesses of chili, racing tire distribution, and the raising of cattle, namely the Tuli bull.

In 1992, Carroll Shelby was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame. In the more than a decade since, he has continued to impact the world of racing and automobile design. Carroll Shelby is probably the only person to have worked at a visible level with all three of the American Automobile manufacturers. His charisma, vision and ability to know the best person for the job have made him into a master organizer and team leader able to produce consistently impressive results.

From the Official Shelby page

[bethm1b]

Turtles are good.

[THE FEZ MAN]

Turtles are good.

unless they give you salmonella

[Turtle]

Salmonella is a Gram-negative facultative rod-shaped bacterium in the same proteobacterial family as Escherichia coli, known as "enteric" bacteria. Salmonella is nearly as well-studied as E. coli from a structural, biochemical and molecular point of view, and as poorly understood as E. coli from an ecological point of view. Salmonellae live in the intestinal tracts of warm and cold blooded animals. In humans, Salmonella are the cause of two diseases called salmonellosis: enteric fever (typhoid), resulting from bacterial invasion of the bloodstream, and acute gastroenteritis, resulting from a foodborne infection/intoxication.

[THE FEZ MAN]

Salmonella is a Gram-negative facultative rod-shaped bacterium in the same proteobacterial family as Escherichia coli, known as "enteric" bacteria. Salmonella is nearly as well-studied as E. coli from a structural, biochemical and molecular point of view, and as poorly understood as E. coli from an ecological point of view. Salmonellae live in the intestinal tracts of warm and cold blooded animals. In humans, Salmonella are the cause of two diseases called salmonellosis: enteric fever (typhoid), resulting from bacterial invasion of the bloodstream, and acute gastroenteritis, resulting from a foodborne infection/intoxication.


and it gives you a wicked case of the hershy squirts

[grail]

Speaking of things that can give you the hershey squirts:

Fecal coliform

Fecal coliforms (sometimes faecal coliforms) are facultatively-anaerobic, rod-shaped, gram-negative, non-sporulating bacteria. They are capable of growth in the presence of bile salts or similar surface agents, oxidase negative, and produce acid and gas from lactose within 48 hours at 44 ± 0.5ºC. The fecal coliform assay should only be used to assess the presence of fecal matter in situations where fecal coliforms of non-fecal origin are not commonly encountered.[1]

Fecal coliforms include the genera that originate in feces; Escherichia as well as genera that are not of fecal origin; Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Citrobacter. The assay is intended to be an indicator of fecal contamination, or more specifically E. coli which is an indicator microorganism for other pathogens that may be present in feces. As recently as April 2006, many official websites including that of the Environmental Protection Agency failed to address the fact that presence of fecal coliforms does not necessarily indicate the presence of feces

Large quantities of fecal coliform bacteria in water may indicate a higher risk of pathogens being present in the water. Some waterborne pathogenic diseases include ear infections, dysentery, typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal coliform tends to affect humans more than it does aquatic creatures, though not exclusively.


It's not necessarily risky to injest fecal coliform, it's the prescence of other pathogens that the can be present along with the fecal coliform.

[grail]

Giardia lamblia (formerly also Lamblia intestinalis and also known as Giardia duodenalis and Giardia intestinalis) is a flagellated protozoan parasite that infects the gastrointestinal tract and causes giardiasis.

In humans, infection is symptomatic only about 50% of the time. Symptoms include foul-smelling diarrhea, flatulence, and steatorrhea (greasy stools). This is due to the fact that the organism attaches to the microvilli in the gut and decreases its absorptive capability. People with recurring Giardia infections, particularly those with a lack of IgA, may develop chronic disease.

Infection from giardia can occur from consuming contaminated food or water; this includes clean-looking mountain streams. It can also be transferred from animal or human feces. Not every person displays symptoms of infection, but they can still serve as a carrier of the disease. Giardia infection is a concern for people camping in the wilderness or swimming in contaminated streams or lakes, especially the artificial lakes formed by beaver dams (hence the popular name for giardiasis, "Beaver Fever").



I've had this before. It stinks and I don't like it.

[Turtle]

...steatorrhea (greasy stools)...


example of steatorrhea
http://img505.imageshack.us/img505/6222/greasemandj5.jpg

[Turtle]

"Attila the Hun" reigned King and Commander of the Huns from A.D. 434-453. For the first twelve years he co-reigned with his brother, Bleda, who died in 446, leaving Attila solely in command. Historians speculate Attila may have killed his brother.

Upon his brother's death, Attila began an aggressive military campaign that conquered lands stretching from the Rhine to the Black and Caspian Seas. Having extended Hun rule he began pressuring the Roman Empire, engaging in negations with Constantinople and Ravenna.

In 451 he made good on a long-time threat to invade Western Europe. Laying waste to city after city, he was nearly victorious in taking Orleans, but the combined armies of Rome and Visigoth defeated him. Attila was forced to retreat; however, the battle for Western Europe was not over.

Forces clashed yet again at Chalons with Attila narrowly defeated. He was forced back across the Rhine, sparing Western Europe a changed course of history.

The following year, 452, Attila waged another war, this time on Italy. Known to the Romans as the Scourge of God, Attila headed for Ravenna, the western capital of the Roman Empire. On the way he felled Aquileia at the Adriatic. Next he destroyed Concordia, Altinum and Patavium, sending parties out to pillage neighboring villages. The regional people fled in fear before his armies.

Attila's forces halted just short of Ravenna. Met by Pope Leo I on behalf of Rome, some say he was dissuaded from going further. Others believe the General wanted to cross the Alps back to his capital near Budapest before winter set in.

Attila died in 453 on his wedding night. Some historians believe he drank to excess that night, passed out on his back, and died of a nosebleed by drowning in his own blood. Others speculate he was likely an alcoholic, common at the time, and probably died from esophageal varices rupturing. This is a hemorrhaging of veins in the throat and stomach that results from chronic acid reflux -- a result of alcoholism, common even today.

The Huns were nomadic tribes thought to be of Mongolian decent known for their fierceness and readiness. The Hun state was among the first well-documented cases of horseback migration in history, and its empire, Europe's largest at the time. Nevertheless, the Hun Empire died with the death of Attila.

[Turtle]

Quasars (QUASi-stellAR radar sources) are gigantic luminous bodies between 780 million and 13 billion light years away, and correspondingly old. They are thought to be active galactic nuclei containing a central supermassive black hole. The brightest quasars are 2 trillion times brighter than our sun, or about 100 Milky Way galaxies. Their light output is continuous but can fluctuate in intensity on timescales of years, months, weeks, days or even hours, suggesting that they are quite dense.

Even as recently as the 1980s, there was significant disagreement among astrophysicists as to what quasars really are. A scientific consensus emerged when some quasars were found to be surrounded by galaxies, originating the active galactic nucleus theory. It has been calculated that, to generate the amount of light that they do, quasars must be powered by supermassive black holes that swallow between 10 and 1000 solar masses per year. In the accretion disc of such a black hole, superheated gases are accelerated to close to the speed of light, releasing tremendous amounts of electromagnetic waves as large portions of the mass is converted directly to energy. In such discs, about 10% of matter is converted to energy, in contrast to only 0.7% of the mass being converted to energy in fusion reactions within typical stars.

Quasars are believed to emit relativistic jets from their rotational poles, like their smaller cousins the pulsars. In 1979 quasars were used to confirm Einstein's theory of relativity, by observations of gravitational lensing effects as the quasar light traveled to the Earth. While at first it was thought that all quasars are "radio-loud" prompting their label as radio sources, subsequent observations revealed that only a minority (about 10%) of quasars emit copious radio energy. "Radio-quiet" quasars are referred to as QSOs (quasi-stellar objects), and play an extremely important role in studies of the early universe and how stars and galaxies first formed.

Early structures such as quasars might be interpreted as the "birth pangs" of galaxies. In the early universe, gases were more evenly distributed, so a newly formed black hole would have ample opportunities to suck in surrounding matter. Our own supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way, for instance, contains about 3.7 million solar masses, even though it started with much less mass than this. It has been busy sucking up other stars for billions of years, but the most intense stellar consumption probably occurred during its early history. This explains why we don't see any quasars in the modern universe but they are easily observable in older regions.

[Turtle]

Hadrian's Wall is an ancient Roman fortification located in northern England. When built, it was 73.5 miles (117 km) long, spanning the entire width of Great Britain. Hadrian's Wall was built around 122 to 130 CE and served many functions for the Romans. It was a visible symbol of their might, the northern border of the Empire, defense against the Picts of ancient Scotland, and a trading center. Today, much of the wall survives, though many parts are eroded and its stones have been culled for other building projects over the centuries.

Construction on Hadrian's Wall began after the Emperor Hadrian visited Britain in 122. Civil problems in other parts of the Empire, notably in the Middle East, inspired Hadrian's decision for a massive fortification in Great Britain. The width and height of Hadrian's Wall varied along its length, but generally ranged from three to six feet (10 to 20 meters) in most places. It was constructed of stone and turf.

Hadrian's Wall incorporated milecastles, or small forts, at every Roman mile, for a total of 80 along its full length. Intermediate turrets were also included for observation. Later, a number of larger forts, from 14 to 17 depending on the source, were built near the wall for additional protection. A Vallum, a large ditch with high earth banks on either side, was added to the southern side of Hadrian's Wall.

Hadrian's Wall was occupied by auxiliary Roman troops throughout the remainder of the Roman presence in Great Britain, and it is assumed that many intermarried with the native population. The emperor after Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, turned his attentions to the construction of a new wall, the Antonine Wall, within Scotland, and Hadrian's Wall was not heavily used during his reign. It became important again in the reign of the new Emperor, Marcus Aurelius, after Antoninus Pius' attempts at northern expansion were unsuccessful. Roman forces withdrew from Great Britain early in the 5th century, though Hadrian's Wall remained occupied in parts for a few decades.

[RobeSoup&Tears]

I copy and paste so many of these for some light reading during my commute and as trivial as they may be I enjoy them...heck I somwtimes do research on the ones I find facinating.

This thread rules...nice one Turtle.

[izzy izkowitz]

and it gives you a wicked case of the hershy squirts


1. hershey squirt

(n), to defecate in one's pants, usually under accidental circumstances in which one had intended to expel flatulence.

(v), to experience a hershey squirt.

Larry tried to fart, but instead, had a hershey squirt in his boxer shorts and had to go home to change his clothes.


2. hershey squirt

(n) a miniscule squirt of shit, often with a tail akin to a Hershey's Kiss

"You laid out a hershey squirt on the counter? I hope no one mistakes it..."

3. hershey squirt

1. brown spot on underwear resulting from a diarrhea fart. 2. failure of parents to adequately potty train a child.

damn! did you hear that dude's fart? that must have left a hershey squirt for sure!

4. Hershey Squirt

When you go to fart, but a squirt of poop comes out. Woopsie.

Richard Dutka when on an adventure to Tim Horton's and let out a Hershey Squirt in his pants.

5. hershey squirt

1. (n) the result of when one farts and defication/poop/shit comes out (does not need to be an extensive amount).

2. one has completed a hershey squirt when he/she farts and makes a hershey kiss in his/her pants at the same time.

3. (adj) used to describe a wet, squisy sounding fart.

bob: *faaarrrttt-squiisshhh!!! !!* (makes a wet, squishy fart)

fred: dude, bob, that was one effing HERSHEY SQUIRT!... you better check your pants!


6. hershey squirt

when your walkin down da hall and you see a lady fall and you look up here dress and you see a big mess...

that mess was a hershey squirt

[MJMANDALAY]

Still an interesting thread that keeps me busy while sitting in traffic.

[Turtle]

MRI or Magnetic Resonance Imaging is a relatively new technology that is revolutionizing several fields. This method of scanning was developed primarily for use in medicine but it has also been used to study fossils and historical artefacts. Early doctors were only able to gather data about a patient through observation and rudimentary tests. X-Rays provided doctors with one of the first ways of peering within a living person. The MRI is one of the exciting successors to the X-Ray.

To perform a MRI scan, the patient is securely placed on an imaging table within a large MRI scanner. Powerful magnetic fields are administered to align the nuclei within the atoms of the patient's body. Next, radio frequency pulses are applied; finally, the nuclei release some of the radio frequency energy and these emissions are detected by the MRI equipment. With this data, a computer generates a surprisingly detailed view of tissues within the body.

Earlier imaging technologies, such as X-rays, were able to detect dense tissues, particularly bones. MRIs give doctors the ability to view all sorts of body structures including soft tissues.

MRIs are frequently used to detect cancers that would otherwise be difficult to diagnose, such as mesothelioma. The ability to detect cancers at their early stages has brought these scanners to the forefront of the battle against many diseases. It is generally believed that patients are not harmed by undergoing the procedure since MRIs do not use radiation. Patients with pacemakers or other metallic implants are not eligible for these scans.

Exams typically take between 30 minutes and one hour. Early models of MRI scanners required patients to be placed in confined positions; newer versions of these machines, however, are based on an open design that is much more spacious and comfortable. The images themselves are often available immediately after the scan and the patient is able to resume normal activity.

[izzy izkowitz]

Source

Chang and Eng Bunker, Medical Curiosity / Twins

Born: 11 May 1811
Birthplace: Mekong Valley, Siam (now Thailand)
Died: 17 January 1874
Best Known As: The world's most famous conjoined twins
Chang and Eng were conjoined twins from Siam (hence the term "Siamese twins"), joined near the breastbone by a five-inch ligament. As children they spent some time in the court of the king of Siam, then were taken to the United States as a circus exhibition. Touring the world, their stage act and unique physicality made them famous. Eventually, with the help of promoter P. T. Barnum, they gained control of their career and earned a good living as entertainers. They settled in North Carolina, where they married sisters and lived as farmers. Eng and his wife had eleven children, and Chang and his wife had ten.

One story has it that the brothers adopted the surname Bunker in honor of the famous Revolutionary War battle of Bunker Hill; according to an account by Jesse Franklin Graves, a contemporary of the Bunker twins, they took their name in 1840 from Fred, William and Barthuel Bunker, friends they had made while living in New York City.

[Turtle]

Source

Chang and Eng Bunker, Medical Curiosity / Twins

Born: 11 May 1811
Birthplace: Mekong Valley, Siam (now Thailand)
Died: 17 January 1874
Best Known As: The world's most famous conjoined twins
Chang and Eng were conjoined twins from Siam (hence the term "Siamese twins"), joined near the breastbone by a five-inch ligament. As children they spent some time in the court of the king of Siam, then were taken to the United States as a circus exhibition. Touring the world, their stage act and unique physicality made them famous. Eventually, with the help of promoter P. T. Barnum, they gained control of their career and earned a good living as entertainers. They settled in North Carolina, where they married sisters and lived as farmers. Eng and his wife had eleven children, and Chang and his wife had ten.

One story has it that the brothers adopted the surname Bunker in honor of the famous Revolutionary War battle of Bunker Hill; according to an account by Jesse Franklin Graves, a contemporary of the Bunker twins, they took their name in 1840 from Fred, William and Barthuel Bunker, friends they had made while living in New York City.

Cool. Good post.

[bethm1b]

they took their name in 1840 from Fred, William and Barthuel Bunker, friends they had made while living in New York City.

Did they start the Hercules plumbing company?

[Turtle]

Born on 19 May 1925 as Saloth Sar, Pol Pot was the Prime Minister of Cambodia from 1976 to 1978. While Pol Pot was in power, Cambodia was known as Democratic Kempuchea and underwent a series of experiments in order to become a socialist society. Pol Pot was born in the Kampung Thrum Province in Cambodia to a wealthy family. He was familiar with the royal family, since his sister was the concubine of a king.

After attending college and technical schools in Cambodia, Pol Pot also studied in France and volunteered with the international labor brigade to build roads in Yugoslavia in 1950. While abroad, he became involved with the French Communist (PCF) anti-colonialist movement, which supported the Vietnamese war against France. Pol Pot joined a secret communist cell known as Cercle Marxiste that had taken over the Khmer Student Association (AER) that year, 1951.

Failed exams forced Pol Pot to return to Cambodia in 1953. While teaching French literature and history, he became the link between established political parties such as the Democrats and Pracheachon and the underground communist movement. In the 1960s, as the Cambodian government arrested members of Pracheachon, Pol Pot rose up the ranks rapidly to become Secretary of the communist party.

His involvement with communism eventually caused Pol Pot to flee to Vietnam, where he founded the Khmer Rouge movement. Emphasizing self-reliance, the movement broke from its communist roots to embrace Cambodian nationalism. Elements of Therewada Buddhism also helped to enable the party to move away from communist ideology.

It the late 1960s and early 1970s, as North Vietnam continually denied support, Pol Pot organized the Khmer Rouge movement into a legitimate political party, the Cambodia Party of Kampuchea (CPK), which led uprisings against the Cambodian government. One of the party's major tenets was that proletariats should be defined as working class farmers, and the betterment of their lives was the purpose of the movement. Gaining momentum among students and teachers, the Khmer Rouge movement, by 1974, was recognized by 63 countries. The United Nations voted on whether to recognize Pol Pot’s movement or the then current government as the legitimate government of Cambodia. The Khmer Rouge movement lost by two votes.

Pol Pot came into power once the capital of Cambodia, Phnom Penh, fell in 1975. The party began to execute Pol Pot’s plan of eliminating capitalism. This included evacuating cities and sending mass amounts of people to the countryside. Currency was rendered useless. Eating and education were conducted through communal living.

Anyone who posed a threat was eliminated ruthlessly. Out of a population of eight million in 1975, two million were executed. Economic failure induced a countrywide hunger crisis; however, outside aid was not accepted, because self-reliance continued to be the foundation of the Khmer Rouge.

In 1978, the Vietnam invasion of Cambodia caused Pol Pot to flee to Thailand. Thereafter, he spent the remaining 20 years of his life in the forests of Cambodia and Thailand, although he still retained some power within the Khmer Rouge. On 15 April 1998, he would hear through the radio show Voice of America that the party he had founded was handing him over to US authorities. On the same day, suffering from Hodgkins disease and cancer and paralyzed by a stroke, Pol Pot died in his sleep. Questions remain whether his death was due to heart failure or suicide.

[bethm1b]

Felix unger was asked to remove himself from his place of residence, That request came from his wife. With nowmere else to go, he showed up at the door of his friend Oscar Madison. Several years earlier Madison was asked to remove himself from his place of residence. That request came from his wife......

[Turtle]

An electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is a quick, powerful blast of electromagnetic energy that ranges across a significant portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The most frequently cited source of an EMP is a nuclear weapon. Indeed, the easiest way to generate the energy for an EMP is through an abrupt chemical or nuclear explosion, and devices for creating EMPs in the absence of such an explosion are known to be relatively weak.

The general idea of an EMP is that it wreaks havoc on electronics, but leaves other physical structures mostly untouched. Real-life electromagnetic pulses released by high-altitude nuclear tests have fused power wires, triggered burglar alarms, and caused breakage in radios, TVs, and power lines as far as 1,500 kilometers (930 miles) away. The source of this disruption is a large-scale, intensely fluctuating magnetic field created when high-energy photons from an explosion knock electrons from their atomic orbits. This disruption becomes trapped within the earth’s magnetic field, leading to a coherent oscillating electric current.

In near-future science fiction, the EMP is seen as a potent superweapon that disables all sophisticated electronics in a national or even continental region. Because the EMP can extend all the way to the horizon with sufficient energy, a nuclear weapon detonated in near-earth orbit could in fact disrupt electronics in a huge region. In contrast, a nuclear weapon detonated close to the ground can do little damage with its EMP – for example, planes that drop atomic weapons continue to function even if they are within the line-of-sight of the nuclear explosion.

To release an EMP capable of doing damage to a wide area, the nuclear weapon that triggers it must be relatively large – in the range of 10 or more megatons, which is almost three orders of magnitude more powerful than the Hiroshima and Nagasaki nuclear bombs. For releasing a powerful EMP in a smaller area, the explosively pumped flux compression generator has been suggested, which uses high explosive to essentially achieve the same effect. The world’s militaries have tested prototypes of such a weapon, but it has not been widely deployed.

[THE FEZ MAN]

one of the largest EMP's was generated buy the explosion of "castle bravo" the first hydrogen bomb exploded at bikini atoll in the south pacific knocking out electric in hawii and most of the south pacific aria, fall out from the bomb also poisoned the crew of a Japanese fishing vessel, castle bravo was also one of the largest above ground nuclear tests ever conducted buy the US

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_bravo

learn to love the bomb:icon_mrgr

[Turtle]

one of the largest EMP's was generated buy the explosion of "castle bravo" the first hydrogen bomb exploded at bikini atoll in the south pacific knocking out electric in hawii and most of the south pacific aria, fall out from the bomb also poisoned the crew of a Japanese fishing vessel, castle bravo was also one of the largest above ground nuclear tests ever conducted buy the US

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_bravo

learn to love the bomb:icon_mrgr

I think I've seen video of this, but never looked into it. Thanks for the info.

[RobeSoup&Tears]

Here's a great site for the autodidacticism in you.

http://www.howstuffworks.com/

[THE FEZ MAN]

I think I've seen video of this, but never looked into it. Thanks for the info.
oh you have to splurge and get this http://www.vce.com/trinity.html i have the entire set, i watch them from time to time. i love the bomb and cant wait till someone finally fires one in anger :D

[Turtle]

Grog is, most simply, a mixture of water and rum, with more complicated versions adding spices, citrus fruits, or sugar. Grog dates from the mid-18th century, when it was introduced as a way of reducing drunkenness on ships in the British Royal Navy.

Historically, the problem of liquid on board ships during long trips has been a difficult one for sailors to deal with. Water tends to grow algae and other plant life, and beer tends to spoil on long journeys. As a result, when rum was introduced in the mid-17th century, it quickly became the drink of choice for navies throughout the world. The British Navy particularly depended on it, and after 1655, a daily ration of ½ pint of rum was given to sailors. Unfortunately, many sailors became intoxicated and unruly from drinking rum, a problem that was exacerbated by men saving up their daily rations until they had a significant quantity stored that they could drink all at once.

In 1756, an Admiral Vernon came up with the idea of diluting his men’s rum with water. This not only made it less alcoholic, but the water also made the rum susceptible to spoiling if sailors chose to save it. From 1756 until 1970, the British Royal Navy served a daily ration, or tot, of grog on board each ship at 11 a.m.

In later years, citrus was added to the traditional Royal Navy grog in order to ward off scurvy among sailors. Since sailors on board Royal Navy vessels often had to go for many months without fresh fruits or vegetables, adding lemon or lime juice to their grog helped to keep their vitamin C intake at sufficient levels. Another take on grog, popular on board pirate vessels, was known as bumbo or bumboo. Since pirate vessels tended to stay out for shorter periods of time and they kept themselves better fed, the lime and lemon juice could be left out of their mixture. Instead, they added sugar, nutmeg, and occasionally cinnamon to help flavor the grog and make it more palatable.

[HummerTuesdays]

COOL! My brother does Revolutionary War reenacting, and one of the guys in the unit occasionally makes grog for the evening parties.

[Turtle]

Mead is an alcoholic beverage made by fermenting honey with yeast. Mead is not a beer, wine, or spirit in the normal sense; it is its own class of alcohol, and many people believe it is the oldest of the alcoholic beverages. Mead has held a pivotal place in many cultures throughout its nearly 8,000 year history, and it is still enjoyed throughout the world.

The first meads were most likely made simply by taking honey and water and letting them ferment with the naturally occurring yeasts found in the honey. Evidence of early meads has been found in Egypt and on the island of Crete, and it was drunk in Greece throughout the Golden Age. In many early cultures, bee goddesses held central roles in the pantheon, and many have postulated that this was because of the intoxicating effects of mead harvested from local bee hives.

There are three main classes of mead, with many variations on each. Traditional meads are made using only honey, water, and yeast. Metheglin mead is made in the same way as traditional mead, but has various spices – such as cinnamon or vanilla – added. Melomel mead is similar, but has fruit added as well. Various types of melomel include mead with mulberries, known as morat; mead with pears, known as perry; mead with apple juice, known as cyser; and mead with grapes, known as pyment.

Mead retained its place of honor as a highly valued drink in many cultures until the introduction of wine. As wine became a mark of wealth and prestige, many lords began turning from the consumption of mead to wine. The peasantry continued to enjoy mead, as it could be easily made from ingredients they could get their hands on and didn’t require special storage. Over time, however, beer replaced mead in the lives of the commoners, and mead became a drink set aside for special occasions.

Many people trace the English word honeymoon to a practice of fathers to supply their daughters with enough mead to last a month as a dowry. Drinking this mead throughout the first month of marriage was meant to ensure that the firstborn child would be a male. Other holidays, such as the Yule festivals, also included drinking mead as part of the festivities.

Mead is still a regular part of the Ethiopian tradition, where it is known as tej. Ethiopian mead has the bark of a plant called gesho added to it, giving it a somewhat hoppy taste and making it similar to the beer-like mead known as braggot. Ethiopian mead varies in alcohol content and sweetness, with some being quite potent, and others, such as the variety known as berz, having a low alcohol content.

[Hudson]

Nike:
The Greek goddess Nike was the personification of victory in mythology. According to the poet Hesiod, she was the daughter of the Titan Pallas and the Oceanid Styx. Hesiod's Theogony features the following passage:
"Styx, the daughter of Okeanos, lay in love with Pallas
and in his mansion gave birth to Zelos and fair-ankled Nike,
and then she bore two illustrious children, Kratos and Bia."

Nike is therefore, according to Hesiod, the sister of three powerful siblings - Zelos (Rivalry), Kratos (Strength), and Bia (Force).

Despite her ancestry, Nike fought on the side of the Olympian gods against the Titans, and thus was considered a manifest representation of the victory of the Olympians.

This did not mean that Nike's powers were confined to the military sphere: quite the contrary, in fact, for she symbolized victory in many areas of ancient Greek life, including athletics (perhaps this is why the legendary shoe manufacturer borrowed the name of this goddess) and other contests.

Images of Nike were popular in Greek art. Exquisite reliefs of the goddess, which are collectively referred to as Nikai, grace the parapet of the temple of Athena Nike on the Athenian Akropolis. In addition, one of the most famous depictions of the goddess of victory is the Hellenistic masterpiece known as the Nike of Samothrace. See the Mythography gallery page (link below) for images and details about these works of art.

Nike was called Victoria in Roman mythology.

N.B. - the proper Greek pronunciation of the name Nike is "Nee kay". Just say it!

[Turtle]

I've always been fascinated by mythology

[WhiteHonkyDevil]

John Tunstall was only 25 when he was killed.

Pat Garrett killed Charlie Bowdre

Dave Rudabaugh was a real person who was involved with the events in Young Guns (the first one). He died horrifically in a bar a few years later. Shot to shit and beheaded over a card game.

He never was called "Arkansas Dave"

Dave was also rode with Curly Bill Brocious, and was at the battle in Iron Springs where Wyatt Earp killed Curly Bill. He also was in on the shootings of Morgan and Virgil Earp.

For another fun Tombstone crossover....Curly Bill had been in the gang that killed John Tunstall, but that was years before.

McKloskey was, in fact, a traitor.

Chavez was arrested in connection with a murder, and sentenced to death. His sentence was later commuted to life in prison. Some time later, a riot broke out in the prison, and Chavez fought alongside the police. He ended up getting a pardon, and dying of natural causes.

Doc Scurlock had no front teeth. He had them shot out of his head in a gunfight. Over a card game. He died in Texas of old age.

[Hudson]

Freya
In Norse mythology, Freya is a goddess of love and fertility, and the most beautiful and propitious of the goddesses. She is the patron goddess of crops and birth, the symbol of sensuality and was called upon in matters of love. She loves music, spring and flowers, and is particularly fond of the elves (fairies). Freya is one of the foremost goddesses of the Vanir.

She is the daughter of the god Njord, and the sister of Freyr. Later she married the mysterious god Od (probably another form of Odin), who disappeared. When she mourned for her lost husband, her tears changed into gold.

Her attributes are the precious necklace of the Brisings, which she obtained by sleeping with four dwarfs, a cloak (or skin) of bird feathers, which allows its wearer to change into a falcon, and a chariot pulled by two cats. She owns Hildesvini ("battle boar") which is actually her human lover Ottar in disguise. Her chambermaid is Fulla. Freya lives in the beautiful palace Folkvang ("field of folk"), a place where love songs are always played, and her hall is Sessrumnir. She divides the slain warriors with Odin: one half goes to her palace, while the other half goes to Valhalla. Women also go to her hall.

Old Norse: Freyja, Friia

[Turtle]

Breadfruit is a staple fruit across much of the South Pacific, spread by Polynesian people across the Southern Seas during their long sojourns. It can be found in Hawaii, Micronesia, and a variety of other places in between, as long as the weather is warm, because breadfruit cannot tolerate cool climates. Breadfruit is also cultivated in the Caribbean, where it is eaten in a variety of dishes. Breadfruit is a member of the mulberry family and resembles mulberry fruits somewhat, although breadfruit is much larger.

The breadfruit tree is a majestic, dark leaved specimen that can reach heights of 85 feet (26 meters). The fruits appear at the tips of the branches in groups of three or less, starting out green and ripening to rich brown or lavender in some varieties. With over 200 known varieties of breadfruit, there are a wide range of sizes, flavors, and colors to choose from. The surface of breadfruit is rough and covered with small four- to six-sided polygonal shapes that sometimes terminate in pliable spines. In shape, the breadfruit is roughly oblong, depending upon the variety.

There are both seedless and seeded breadfruit cultivars. The seeded varieties can be grown from seed, although the seeds must be used quickly, because they soon lose the ability to germinate. The seedless variety is cultivated by propagating sucker plants from the roots, which is accomplished by exposing the roots and injuring them. Both varieties produce a high volume of natural latex, which is used as a ripeness indicator.

Breadfruit can be eaten green or ripe. In the green stage, it is treated as a vegetable and requires cooking or processing to be eaten. In the ripe stage, breadfruit can be eaten raw.

Green stage breadfruit has a white, starchy interior and is firm to the touch. Ripe breadfruit has a creamy to yellow flesh, slightly pasty in texture, and is sweet to the taste. Many varieties of breadfruit produce year round, with fruits at various stages of ripeness on the tree at all times. In some cases, there are two or three peak seasons in which there is a higher proportion of ripe fruit.

Breadfruit has been cultivated for centuries by people in the South Pacific, and it came to the attention of Western explorers in the 18th century. Europeans were intrigued by the plant, which was clearly a staple of the Polynesian diet and served a vast majority of the nutritional needs of the Islanders. In the attempt to provide a cheap and steady source of food for the slave trade in the West Indies, breadfruit was carried over with some difficulties and cultivated there as well.

Breadfruit is rare on the American mainland, and many consumers don't know what to look for in the fruit or how to store it. If using ripened breadfruit, you should look for a slightly soft fruit with an even color and small globules of latex on the surface. Unripe varieties should be firm and evenly green. In both cases, the fruit should be used quickly. Breadfruit does not handle refrigeration well and should be kept in a thick bag to prevent cold damage.

Breadfruit is often boiled or roasted. When baked, it yields a texture and flavor surprisingly similar to conventional wheat bread. Unripe fruit can also be used to make a flour or paste, which can be used successfully in baking.

Breadfruit is often used to make poi, a fermented fruit product that is often made with taro as well. Breadfruit is also used to make puddings, candied to create snacks, and fried for chips. In addition, it provides animal fodder in some parts of the world.

[Turtle]

The seven wonders of the Ancient world are a group of sculpture and architectural wonders that did not coexist. A group of wonders was first listed by the Greek historian Herodotus in his work History in 450 BCE. Various listings propose slightly different choices for the seven wonders, but often the seven wonders included the following:


The pyramids of Egypt.

The three pyramids at Giza, estimated to have been completed in 2680 BCE, are located outside of the city we know as modern Cairo. The largest of the three pyramids is the pyramid of Khufu or Cheops, a king of the fourth dynasty. The pyramids of Egypt are the sole survivor of the seven wonders.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

Herodotus speaks of the splendors of Babylon, without mentioning the Hanging Gardens specifically, though they are recorded by the Greek geographer Strabo and the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus in the first century CE. In excavations of the Ancient city of Babel in 1899, German archaeologist Robert Koldewey found evidence that seemed to include the cellars and pumps for the gardens.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia.

In 456 BCE, Libon of Elis completed a Temple of Zeus. The sculptor Phidias was chosen to create the statue of Zeus. Considered Phidias' best work, the statue – reputed to be 40 feet (12 meters) high - was imitated both as a statue and with likenesses on coins. Three excavation teams, one from France in 1829, one from Germany in 1875, and one in the 1950s, found the outlines of the temple and Phidias’ workshop, but of the great statue itself, there was no sign. This was one of two statues to be designated among the seven wonders.

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus.

There were a number of temples built to the Ephesan fertility goddess Artemis all on the same spot, including in 600 BCE by the architect Cherisphron, 550 BCE by the architect Theodorus, and one by the architect Scopas of Paros that was under construction when Alexander the Great visited Ephesus in 333 BCE. This last temple was destroyed by Goth invaders in 262 CE. John Turtle Wood, an architect sent by the British Museum in 1863, discovered the foundation of the temple site in 1869. D. G. Hograth, leading another British Museum excavation in 1904, found evidence of five temples that had all been built on the site.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.

In 353 BCE, Mausolus, the ruler of Halicarnassus, died. As a tribute, Queen Artemisia decided to have a splendid tomb built for him. Although it survived the conquest of Alexander the Great in 334 BCE and pirate attacks in 62 and 58 BCE, a series of earthquakes beginning in the fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries reduced it to its base. Bit by bit, the broken stones were used to fortify other buildings, and in 1522, with the rumor of a Turkish invasion, the remains were broken up and used to fortify the castle where the Crusaders took their stand. In 1846, Charles Thomas Newton of the British Museum excavated the site, discovering the statues of Mausolus and Artemisia.

The Colossus at Rhodes.

Rhodes the city was the capital of Rhodes the island. Built in 408 BCE, it was a natural harbor. Mausolus of Halicarnassus conquered the island in 357 BCE, and it fell to the Persians in 340 BCE and was taken by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE.

Alexander’s successors fought over Rhodes, and when the attacker withdrew, the Rhodians celebrated their victory by erecting a statue of their patron, the god Helios. The statue, designed by Chares of Lindos and the other statue among the seven wonders, was created over the course of 12 years, beginning in 304 BCE. The Colossus was 110 ft (34 m) high and was mounted on a 50-foot (15-meter) pedestal. Fifty-six years after its completion, the Colossus was felled by an earthquake, and in the seventh century CE, it was broken up and sold as scrap metal. Contrary to popular belief, it did not stand spanning the harbor entrance.

The Pharos (Lighthouse) of Alexandria.

In 290 BCE, Ptolemy Soter, ruler of Alexandria, Egypt after Alexander’s death, ordered the building of a lighthouse to guide ships into the harbor of the city. The world’s first lighthouse was completed 20 years later, and at the time was second in height only to the Great Pyramid. Designed by Sostrates of Knidos and built on the island of Pharos, the lighthouse soon came to be called by the island’s name. Apparently it suffered the same fate as some other of the seven wonders – felled by progressive damage from earthquakes in 365, 1303, and 1326 CE. In 1994, archaeological divers found the ruins in the waters off Alexandria.

[Turtle]

As a counterpoint to the seven wonders of the Ancient world – feats of architecture and sculpture from Ancient times - the American Society of Civil Engineers created a list of seven wonders of the modern world in 1994. Each structure was chosen based on its function, design, and engineering achievement at the time it was built. In a certain way, the wonders of the modern world are more diverse, each representing a distinct type of structure: a tunnel, a tower, a skyscraper, a bridge, a dam, a dike, and a canal.

SEVEN WONDERS OF THE MODERN WORLD

Channel Tunnel tunnel English Channel 1987-1994 twin tunnels, 31 mi (50 km) long and 24 ft (7.3 m) in diameter; 130 ft (40 m) below the seabed

CN Tower tower Toronto, Canada 1973-1976 1815 feet (554 m) high
Empire State Building skyscraper New York City 1930-1931 1250 feet (381 m) high

Golden Gate Bridge bridge San Francisco Bay 1933-1937 overall length 9,266 ft (2,824 m); 4,200 ft (1,280 m)

Itaipu Dam dam Brazil/Paraguay border 1975-1991 5 mi (8 km) wide

Netherlands North Sea Protection Works dike North Sea 1927-1932; 1957-1981 19-mi (31-km) long enclosure dam; 2-mi (3-km) barrier

Panama Canal canal Panama 1881-1889; 1904-1914 50-mi (80 km) long

Interesting facts about the seven wonders of the modern world:


Five of the wonders of the modern world have a close connection with bodies of water, whereas only two of the wonders of the Ancient world - the Pharos and the Colossus – do.

Various wonders of the modern world go through the water, under the water, and over the water.

Whereas two of the ancient wonders were in Africa, two in Asia Minor, two in Europe, and one in the Middle East; the wonders of the modern world include three in North America, two in Western Europe, and one each in Central and South America.

The Itaipu Dam is the world’s largest hydroelectric plant.

When it was built, the Golden Gate Bridge was the longest suspension bridge in the world. The cables used to hold up the bridge are long enough to circle the globe three times. Although there are many stories as to how often the bridge is painted, since 1995 it has only required touch-up work on areas suffering from environmental corrosion.

The Channel Tunnel is nicknamed the Chunnel and includes over 300 miles of cold water piping, designed to offset the heat caused by the speed of the train in the enclosed tunnel.

The CN Tower in Toronto is the tallest free-standing structure on the planet, and is actually three times taller than Seattle's Space Needle.

The Empire State Building was the world’s tallest building from 1931 until 1972, when the first tower of the World Trade Center was completed. Though it is not known for this, one of the most impressive things about the Empire State Building is that it took just 13 months to complete, without overtime.

The American Society of Civil Engineers asked for people around the world to submit nominations for worthy contenders for the seven wonders of the modern world.

[izzy izkowitz]

A taco is a traditional Mexican dish comprised of a rolled, folded, pliable maize tortilla filled with an edible substance. According to the Real Academia Española, the word taco originally meant (and still means) a plug (rolled paper used to plug a hole) or paper or cloth patch for musket balls.[1] Care should be taken when using the word taco outside of Mexico, as the RAE lists 27 possible meanings for the word.

Taco can refer to:

Taco, a type of food associated with Mexico
Taco Ockerse, a pop singer who had a hit with Puttin' on the Ritz
Taco van den Honert, a Dutch field hockey player
A vagina, slang
The yellow stains on shirt armpits caused by perspiration and deodorant, slang
A company that manufactures boiler components
A software company and their HTML edit software in Mac OS X
Abbreviation for Toyota Tacoma
In Spanish spoken outside of Mexico, taco can also refer to a

wad, stopper, or plug
(Mexico, Southern Cone) obstruction
(Chile) traffic jam
pad of paper
desk calendar
book of tickets
cleat
cue in billiards
blowpipe, peashooter
light snack, bite
(Chile) swig of wine
of food: cube
year
ramrod
short and thick piece of wood
picker in a loom
(Latin America) heel of a shoe
(Spain) swearword
(Spain) mess
(Southern Cone) short, stocky person
(Andes) big shot
(Central America and Caribbean) fear, anxiety

[THE FEZ MAN]

ahhhh, and in my body shop. its also a half round velcro backed sanding pad

[Turtle]

Opus Dei is a personal prelature, a self-governing body defined by members instead of geography, of the Roman Catholic Church. Father Josemaría Escrivá founded the organization in 1928, and believed that Opus Dei was divinely inspired, an argument also made by Pope John Paul II. Father Escrivá was canonized, or made a saint, in 2002. Msgr. Javier Echevarría was appointed as prelate, or leader, in 1994.

Opus Dei has close to 90,000 members, of which about 98% are laypeople. Most members are married, but a few have dedicated themselves to chastity and are educated in Opus Dei centers. Unlike traditional nuns and priests, these unmarried members are not part of the clergy, though many dedicate their lives to chastity. Laypersons form part of the governing body and are not under the authority of local bishops. Instead, Opus Dei answers directly to the pope and is allowed self-governance, as long as such governance is not in opposition to the religious teachings of the Holy See.

Opus Dei is significantly different from what most people think constitutes Catholicism. Beliefs are fundamental, representing a return to Catholicism that predates Vatican II. Vatican II changed much of the church’s previously held ideas in an attempt to modernize the church. It gave more power to laypeople and proposed Mass should be conducted in native tongues rather than Latin.

Opus Dei tends to govern along older church law, conducting Mass in Latin and using pre-Vatican II rules for behavior during Lent. Leaders support “holiness in daily living,” inspired by Escrivá’s idea that baptism sanctifies the Catholic as a child of God. One must always, not just at Mass or on Sundays, act in a way that is spiritual and tends toward sainthood.

A portion of each day is spent in meditative prayer, and each aspect of ordinary life, such as parenting or working, is an opportunity for the Catholic to strive for imitation of Christ. Ordinary deeds are sanctified when a person acts with love, dignity, sacrifice, ethics and competence. By being Christlike in all deeds, Opus Dei believes that its members make no distinction between secular life and life as a Christian. Life is unified, yet Christians seem forced to live a double life. Any secular task is sanctified by the way in which it is undertaken.

A recent example of this was the suggestion by some bishops that John Kerry should be denied communion because in his political life he was pro-choice. Kerry argued that he did not support abortion but rather supported choice and respected the rights of others to make choices. The church took no action against Kerry, but Opus Dei members find this position insupportable. One cannot live under separate belief structures. According to Opus Dei beliefs, by even nominally supporting pro-choice ideology, Kerry was not acting as a Catholic should in his secular life.

Much has been made of the Opus Dei doctrine of self-mortification. By experiencing physical pain, the Opus Dei member is reminded of the suffering of Christ, and thus his or her life cannot be anything but unified. Mortification is only practiced by a small percentage of Opus Dei members, who wear the cilice, a band around the leg that aches. The cilice is worn for two hours each day. It does not cause bleeding and frequently leaves no marks. Opus Dei members were scandalized by the depiction of mortification in the recent film The Da Vinci Code as a hugely exaggerated portrait of mortification in Opus Dei communities.

[Hudson]

Widdershins
It was considered unlucky in former times in Britain to travel in an anticlockwise (because anti sun wise) direction around a church and a number of folk myths make reference to this superstition, e.g. Childe Rowland, where the protagonist and his sister are transported to Elfland after his sister runs widdershins round a church. There is also a reference to this in Dorothy Sayers's novel The Nine Tailors.

In contrast, in Judaism circles are always walked anticlockwise. For example: when a bride circles her groom 7 times before marriage, when dancing around the bimah during Simchat Torah (or when dancing in a circle at any time), or when the Torah is brought out of the Ark (Ark is approached from the right, and left from the left).

This has its origins in the Beis Hamikdash, where in order not to get in each others way, the Priests would walk around the Altar anticlockwise while performing their duties. When entering the Beis Hamikdash the people would enter by one gate, and leave by another. The resulting direction of motion was anticlockwise.

[Turtle]

A swastika is a geometric symbol made of two intersecting, straight-backed Z’s at 45° angles to each other. The swastika is sometimes referred to as a cross with broken arms. Though it's been recorded throughout history as a spiritual good omen, it is most notably known in the West as the Nazi Party symbol.

It might be surprising to learn that swastika is not a German word, but Sanskrit. Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language, and the word translates to a little something that brings good luck or well-being. The swastika is considered an auspicious symbol that might be worn on the clothes or body, similar to the Irish four-leaf clover. Co-opted by the German Nazi Party of World War II as a national emblem of Aryan pride, the swastika became a hated symbol in the West, where its benign ancient roots remain overshadowed.

Adolph Hitler’s adoption of the swastika was not totally without premise. The Nazi Party subscribed to the then-popular Aryan Invasion Theory, which held that Nordic peoples of Europe or Central Asia invaded and conquered India one to three millennia before the birth of Christ. The Nazis believed these Indo-Germanic peoples to be the original pure white or master Aryan race, and India to be the birthplace of civilization. Philologist William Jones of the late 18th century even suggested that Sanskrit, Greek and Latin might have come from an original Indo-Germanic language, now lost to the world. These Aryan associations appealed to Adolph Hitler, and the swastika unfortunately became irrevocably intertwined with genocide and racial hatred.

In India and other nations, the swastika remains a positive religious symbol, true to its roots. It is often depicted on celebration cakes, in motifs and tile designs, and in basket weaving, paintings and jewelry.

[Turtle]

A fathom is a unit of measurement which most often appears in the context of nautical depths. Like many seemingly odd units of measurement, the fathom was originally linked to a measurement on the human body, in this case the outstretched arms of an adult male. When measurements were standardized, the fathom as a unit of measurement was retained, and many sailors continued to use it to discuss the depth of water. As a result, many marine instruments give depths in fathoms as well as meters and feet.

Officially, a fathom measures six feet (1.8 meters) in length, although some countries quibble on fractional distances of the measurement. The fathom is an ancient unit of measurement, dating back at least to the times of Ancient Greece. The use of the old English term faethm for “outstretched arms” to discuss the measurement appears to be quite old, with the adoption of “fathom” for taking nautical soundings occurring in the 1600s. Typically, a knot would be made at each fathom length of rope, allowing sailors to count off the fathoms as they dropped the rope to the bottom.

[grail]

Hence Mark Twain, meaning a depth of 2 fathoms. Which more than enough water for a sternwheeler to travel.

[Hudson]

Poor Richard's Almanack, 1743


Friendly READER,
Because I would have every Man make Advantage of the Blessings of Providence, and few are acquainted with the Method of making Wine of the Grapes which grow wild in our Woods, I do here present them with a few easy Directions, drawn from some Years Experience, which, if they will follow, they may furnish themselves with a wholesome sprightly Claret, which will keep for several Years, and is not inferior to that which passeth for French Claret.

Begin to gather Grapes from the 10th of September (the ripest first) to the last of October, and having clear'd them of Spider webs, and dead Leaves, put them into a large Molosses- or Rum-Hogshead; after having washed it well, and knock'd one Head out, fix it upon the other Head, on a Stand, or Blocks in the Cellar, if you have any, if not, in the warmest Part of the House, about 2 Feet from the Ground; as the Grapes sink, put up more, for 3 or 4 Days; after which, get into the Hogshead bare-leg'd, and tread them down until the Juice works up about your Legs, which will be in less than half an Hour; then get out, and turn the Bottom ones up, and tread them again, a Quarter of an Hour; this will be sufficient to get out the good Juice; more pressing wou'd burst the unripe Fruit, and give it an ill Taste: This done, cover the Hogshead close with a thick Blanket, and if you have no Cellar, and the Weather proves Cold, with two.

In this Manner you must let it take its first Ferment, for 4 or 5 Days it will work furiously; when the Ferment abates, which you will know by its making less Noise, make a Spile-hole within six Inches of the Bottom, and twice a Day draw some in a Glass. When it looks as clear as Rock-water, draw it off into a clean, rather than new Cask, proportioning it to the Contents of the Hogshead or Wine (*1) Vat; that is, if the Hogshead holds twenty Bushels of Grapes, Stems and all, the Cask must at least, hold 20 Gallons, for they will yield a Gallon per Bushel. Your Juice or (*2) Must thus drawn from the Vat, proceed to the second Ferment.

(*1) Vat or Fatt, a Name for the Vessel, in which you tread the Grapes, and in which the Must takes its first Ferment.

(*2) Must is a Name for the Juice of the Vine before it is fermented, afterwards 'tis called Wine.

You must reserve in Jugs or Bottles, 1 Gallon or 5 Quarts of the Must to every 20 Gallons you have to work; which you will use according to the following Directions.

Place your Cask, which must be chock full, with the Bung up, and open twice every Day, Morning and Night; feed your Cask with the reserved Must; two Spoonfuls at a time will suffice, clearing the Bung after you feed it, with your Finger or a Spoon, of the Grape-Stones and other Filth which the Ferment will throw up; you must continue feeding it thus until Christmas, when you may bung it up, and it will be fit for Use or to be rack'd into clean Casks or Bottles, by February.

N. B. Gather the Grapes after the Dew is off, and in all dry Seasons. Let not the Children come at the Must, it will scour them severely. If you make Wine for Sale, or to go beyond Sea, one quarter Part must be distill'd, and the Brandy put into the three Quarters remaining. One Bushel of Grapes, heap Measure, as you gather them from the Vine, will make at least a Gallon of Wine, if good, five Quarts.

These Directions are not design'd for those who are skill'd in making Wine, but for those who have hitherto had no Acquaintance with that Art.


:action-smGotta love the anti English subtext!!!!!

[Turtle]

To understand the mechanical differences between a two stroke and four stroke engine, lets first consider how the four stroke engine works. The four strokes are:

Intake: The piston travels down the cylinder while the intake valve is opened to allow a mixture of fuel and air to enter the combustion chamber.

Compression: The intake valve is closed and the piston travels back up the cylinder thereby compressing the gasses.

Combustion: The spark plug ignites the compressed gas causing it to explode, which forces the piston down.

Exhaust: The piston rises up the cylinder as the exhaust valve is opened, allowing the piston to clear the chamber to start the process over.

Each time the piston rises and falls it turns the crankshaft that is responsible for turning the wheels. This is how fuel is converted into forward motion.

Of note here is that the spark plug only fires once every other revolution. Also, there is a sophisticated set of mechanisms working in synchronization to create the four strokes. A camshaft must alternately tip a rocker arm attached either to the intake or exhaust valve. The rocker arm returns to its closed position via a spring. The valves must be seated properly in the cylinder head to avoid compression leaks. In other words, a symphony of mechanical events occurs.

In the two stroke engine, all four events are integrated into one simple downward stroke, and one upward stroke. Two strokes. Intake and exhaust are both integrated into the compression and combustion movement of the piston, eliminating the need for valves. This is accomplished by an inlet and exhaust port in the wall of the combustion chamber itself. As the piston travels downward from combustion, the exhaust port is exposed allowing the spent gasses to rush out of the chamber. The downward stroke also creates suction that draws in new air/fuel through an inlet located lower in the chamber. As the piston rises again, it blocks off the inlet and port, compressing the gasses at the top of the chamber. The spark plug fires and the process starts over. Significantly, the engine fires on every revolution, giving the two stroke its power advantage.

However, at the lowest point of travel of the piston when the chamber is filling with fuel/air, the exhaust port exposed above allows some fuel/gasses to escape the chamber. This is easily seen with an outboard motorboat, evident by the multicolored oil slick surrounding the engine, but it happens with all two stroke engines. This — along with burning oil -- creates pollution and fuel-efficiency issues.

For these reasons, two stroke engines are reserved for intermittent use, where weight-to-power ratio or orientation issues are important and where mileage isn't primary. Meanwhile manufacturers are looking for ways to add advantages to four stroke motors, making them smaller, lighter and more robust.

To further understand the difference between a two stroke and a four stroke engine let us consider the advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of the two stroke:

Has more get-up-and-go because it fires once every revolution, giving it twice the power of a four stroke, which only fires once every other revolution. Packs a higher weight-to-power ratio because it is much lighter. Is less expensive because of its simpler design. Can be operated in any orientation because it lacks the oil sump of a four stroke engine, which has limited orientation if oil is to be retained in the sump.
These attributes make two stroke engines very popular for a variety of uses from dirt bikes, mopeds, jet skis, and small outboard motors, to lawn and garden equipment such as mowers, edgers, leaf blowers, chain saws and hedge trimmers.

But there are other differences between the two stroke and four stroke engines that aren't so favorable, which is why you won't see two stroke engines in cars.

Disadvantages of the two stroke:

Faster wear and shorter engine life than a four stroke due to the lack of a dedicated lubricating system. Requires special two stroke oil ("premix") with every tank of gas, adding expense and at least a minimal amount of hassle. Heavily pollutes because of the simpler design and the gas/oil mixture that is released prior to, and in the exhaust (also creates an unpleasant smell). Is fuel-inefficient because of the simpler design, resulting in poorer mileage than a four stroke engine.

[Turtle]

bump

[Turtle]

Cavitation occurs in liquid when bubbles form and implode in pump systems or around propellers. Pumps put liquid under pressure, but if the pressure of the substance drops or its temperature increases, it begins to vaporize, just like boiling water. Yet in such a small, sensitive system, the bubbles can't escape so they implode, causing physical damage to parts of the pump or propeller.

A combination of temperature and pressure constraints will result in cavitation in any system. No manufacturer or industrial technician wants to run pumps that keep getting affected by cavitation, as it will permanently damage the chambers of the device. The vaporization actually causes a loud, rocky noise because the bubbles are imploding and making the liquid move faster than the speed of sound!

Inside every pump, there is a propeller that draws liquid from one side of the chamber to the other. The liquid normally continues out through a valve so it can do another job in a different part of the machine. Sometimes this device is called an impeller. Even though the total chamber stays under the same pressure, and the materials are temperature regulated, cavitation manages to occur right next to the surface of the propeller.

A propeller rotates through a liquid and actually creates localized differences in pressure along the propeller blades. This can even occur underwater on a submarine or ship's propeller. The bubbles of cavitation appear in low-pressure areas but then immediately want to implode with such force that they make dings and pits in metal. A propeller exposed to cavitation resembles the surface of the moon, with tiny, scattered craters.

There are two types of cavitation that can occur in the different stages of pumping, but both are results of the same phenomenon. Suction or classical cavitation occurs around the impeller as it is drawing liquid through the chamber. The propeller's motion creates the changes in pressure necessary for vaporization.

Discharge or recirculation cavitation is the result of changing pressure at the point of exit, the discharge valve. The valve is not able to let all the liquid through as fast as it should, so the currents' different velocities create miniature changes in the uniform pressure. Even such small variations are enough to create the ideal circumstances for cavitation.

[Turtle]

The Poop Deck of a sailing ship has absolutely no connection with any bodily function. That sort of business is generally handled in the area below the ship's bow called the head. Perform that act on an actual poop deck, or even in the poop cabin below it, is likely to result in extended kitchen duty for the offending sailor. A poop deck is actually the roof of a poop cabin located in the rear (aft) section of a sailing ship's main deck.

The word poop for our purposes comes from the Latin puppis, meaning "stern." Shipbuilders often designed a cabin space in the very rear of the ship called a poop cabin. This poop cabin extends a few feet above the level of the main deck, and is finished off with a flat roof. The flat roof of a poop cabin also serves as an observation platform called the poop deck. Officers and high-ranking sailors often used the poop deck as an ideal position for observing the crew at work.

The poop cabin on a sailing ship generally served the same purpose as the raised bridge area does on a modern ship. The poop cabin could be used as an officer's mess hall during meals, as well as a storage area for maps, journals and official logs. The poop deck itself was a good vantage point from which to assess the condition of the ship's sails, since the poop deck was usually positioned behind the shorter third mast, or mizzenmast. If the captain was not at the helm himself, he could generally be found on the poop deck issuing orders to the helmsman.

As sails gave way to engines, the need for a functional poop deck decreased significantly. Almost all of the vital command orders could be issued from a centralized bridge which overlooked the entire ship. Modern sailing ships may still have an elevated cabin in the aft area, but the poop deck is little more than a raised platform suitable for sunbathing or other recreational uses.

[izzy izkowitz]

Title 21, Code of Federal Regulations, Part 110.110 allows the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to establish maximum levels of natural or unavoidable defects in foods for human use that present no health hazard. These "Food Defect Action Levels" listed in this booklet are set on this premise--that they pose no inherent hazard to health.

Poor manufacturing practices may result in enforcement action without regard to the action level. Likewise, the mixing of blending of food with a defect at or above the current defect action level with another lot of the same or another food is not permitted. That practice renders the final food unlawful regardless of the defect level of the finished food.

The FDA set these action levels because it is economically impractical to grow, harvest, or process raw products that are totally free of non-hazardous, naturally occurring, unavoidable defects. Products harmful to consumers are subject to regulatory action whether or not they exceed the action levels.

It is incorrect to assume that because the FDA has an established defect action level for a food commodity, the food manufacturer need only stay just below that level. The defect levels do no represent an average of the defects that occur in any of the products--the averages are actually much lower. The levels represent limits at which FDA will regard the food product "adulterated"; and subject to enforcement action under Section 402(a)(3) of the Food, Drug, and Cosmetics Act.

As technology improves, the FDA may review and change defect action levels on this list. Also, products may be added to the list. The FDA publishes these revisions as Notices in the Federal Register. It is the responsibility of the user of this booklet to stay current with any changes to this list.

COMMODITIES AND DEFECT ACTION LEVELS
Product DEFECT
(Method) Action Level
TOMATO PUREE Drosophila fly
(AOAC 955.46) Average of 20 or more fly eggs per 100 grams
OR
10 or more fly eggs and 1 or more maggots per 100 grams
OR
2 or more maggots per 100 grams in a minimum of 12 subsamples

DEFECT SOURCE: Pre-harvest and/or post harvest and/or processing insect infestation

POPCORN Rodent filth
(AOAC 950.91) 1 or more rodent excreta pellets are found in 1 or more subsamples, and 1 or more rodent hairs are found in 2 or more other subsamples
OR
2 or more rodent hairs per pound and rodent hair is found in 50% or more of the subsamples
OR
20 or more gnawed grains per pound and rodent hair is found in 50% or more of the subsamples
Field corn 5% or more by weight of field corn

DEFECT SOURCE: Rodent excreta - post harvest and/or processing animal contamination, Rodent hair - post harvest and/or processing contamination with animal hair or excreta, Rodent gnawing - post harvest and/or processing damage, Field corn - harvest contamination

CHOCOLATE AND CHOCOLATE LIQUOR Insect filth
(AOAC 965.38) Average is 60 or more insect fragments per 100 grams when 6 100-gram subsamples are examined
OR
Any 1 subsample contains 90 or more insect fragments
Rodent filth
(AOAC 965.38) Average is 1 or more rodent hairs per 100 grams in 6 100-gram subsamples examined
OR
Any 1 subsample contains 3 or more rodent hairs
Shell
(AOAC 968.10-970.23) For chocolate liquor, if the shell is in excess of 2% calculated on the basis of alkali-free nibs

DEFECT SOURCE: Insect fragments - post harvest and/or processing insect infestation, Rodent hair - post harvest and/or processing contamination with animal hair or excreta, Shell - processing contamination


for more fun reading, you can go here. http://www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/dalbook.html

[Turtle]

Viscosity is a scientific term describing the internal friction of a fluid or gas. Both have adjacent layers, and when pressure is applied, the friction between layers affects how much the substance will respond to external force. Viscosity, in its simplest form, can be evaluated by the thickness of a substance. A general rule is that gases are less viscous than liquids, and thicker liquids exhibit higher viscosity than thin liquids.

Viscosity may also be described as resistance of a liquid to penetration. Some refer to viscosity as the density of a liquid or gas. The term fluidity is opposite to viscosity, as it measures lack of resistance instead of amount of resistance.

Within each substance, the molecules reduce flow. They collide with each other, and also exhibit a degree of attraction. Molecular analysis can help determine specific viscosity measurements, thus helping to determine which substances will be of most use in a given application.

Temperature also effects viscosity. Raising the temperature of a fluid tends to make it less viscous. If one takes a thick liquid like molasses, and heats it up to boiling, the result will be a thin, easy to pour liquid. Cooking oils that are refrigerated, in most cases become more viscous, or almost solid due to colder temperatures, rendering them useless.

As crude oil is piped through climates of varying temperatures, the rate of flow in response to pressure changes. When oil is derived from Alaska, it is more viscous, than oil derived from the Persian Gulf, since the ground temperatures vary significantly. To address the issue of force needed to deliver oil through piping, sensors in some pipes measure the viscosity of the fluid and determine if greater or lesser pressure must be added to keep the flow of oil constant and steady.

Naturally, motor oil is also subject to changing viscosity when heated by an engine. Oil that becomes too thin from the engine’s heat will not work properly in the car engine. To address this, scientists developed additives, called polymers, which keep viscosity rates constant under higher temperatures.

Geologists use measurements of viscosity to evaluate magma under active or possibly soon to be active volcanoes. When magma exhibits a low level of viscosity, the volcano is more likely to erupt, because little pressure is needed to push the magma to the surface. Magma with greater viscosity causes volcanic eruptions less frequently. However if an eruption occurs with high viscosity magma, it results in huge explosions, since greater force is required to push magma outside of the volcano.

[MAV]

The term specific gravity, symbolized sp gr, refers to the ratio of the density of a solid or liquid to the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius. The term can also refer to the ratio of the density of a gas to the density of dry air at standard temperature and pressure, although this specification is less often used. Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity; that is, it is not expressed in units.

To find the sp gr of a solid or liquid, you must know its density in kilograms per meter cubed (kg/m3) or in grams per centimeter cubed (g/cm3). Then, divide this density by the density of pure water in the same units. If you use kg/m3, divide by 1000. If you use g/cm3, divide by 1 (that is, leave the number alone). It is important to use the same units in the numerator and denominator.

Water has a specific gravity equal to 1. Materials with a specific gravity less than 1 are less dense than water, and will float on the pure liquid; substances with a specific gravity more than 1 are more dense than water, and will sink. An object with a density of 85 kg/m3 has a specific gravity of 0.085, and will float high on the surface of a body of water. An object with a density of 85 g/cm3 has a specific gravity of 85, and will sink rapidly.

To find the specific gravity of a gas, you must know its density in kilograms per meter cubed (kg/m3). Then, divide this density by the density of dry air at standard temperature and pressure. This value is approximately 1.29 kg/m3. Gases with a specific gravity less than 1 will rise in the atmosphere at sea level; gases with a specific gravity greater than 1 will sink and seek regions of low elevation at the earth's surface.

[Hudson]

Tiamat

In Babylonian myths, Tiamat is a huge, bloated female dragon that personifies the saltwater ocean, the water of Chaos. She is also the primordial mother of all that exists, including the gods themselves. Her consort is Apsu, the personification of the freshwater abyss that lies beneath the Earth. From their union, saltwater with freshwater, the first pair of gods were born. They are Lachmu and Lachamu, parents of Ansar and Kisar, grandparents of Anu and Ea.
In the creation epic Enuma elish, written around 2000 BCE, their descendants started to irritate Tiamat and Apsu so they decided to kill their offspring. Ea discovered their plans and he managed to kill Apsu while the latter was asleep. Tiamat flew into a rage when she learned about Apsu's death and wanted to avenge her husband. She created an army of monstrous creatures, which was to be led by her new consort Kingu, who is also her son. Eventually, Tiamat was defeated by the young god Marduk, who was born in the deep freshwater sea.

Marduk cleaved her body in half, and from the upper half he created the sky and from the lower half he made the earth. From her water came forth the clouds and her tears became the source of the Tigris and the Euphratus. Kingu also perished, and from his blood Marduk created the first humans.

"The Deep" (Hebrew tehom) at the beginning of Genesis derives from Tiamat.

[MAV]

The American Petroleum Institute gravity, or API gravity, is a measure of how heavy or light a petroleum liquid is compared to water. If its API gravity is greater than 10, it is lighter and floats on water; if less than 10, it is heavier and sinks. API gravity is thus a measure of the relative density of a petroleum liquid and the density of water, but it is used to compare the relative densities of petroleum liquids. For example, if one petroleum liquid floats on another and is therefore less dense, it has a greater API gravity. Although mathematically API gravity has no units (see the formula below), it is nevertheless referred to as being in “degrees”. API gravity is graduated in degrees on a hydrometer instrument and was designed so that most values would fall between 10 and 70 API gravity degrees.

History of development

The U.S. National Bureau of Standards in 1916 established the Baumé scale (see degrees Baumé) as the standard for measuring specific gravity of liquids less dense than water. Investigation by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences found major errors in salinity and temperature controls that had caused serious variations in published values. Hydrometers in the U.S. had been manufactured and distributed widely with a modulus of 141.5 instead of the Baumé scale modulus of 140. The scale was so firmly established that by 1921 the remedy implemented by the American Petroleum Institute was to create the API Gravity scale recognizing the scale that was actually being used.

API gravity formulas

The formula used to obtain the API gravity of petroleum liquids is thus:

API gravity = \frac{141.5}{SG} at 60°F - 131.5

Conversely, the specific gravity of petroleum liquids can be derived from the API gravity value as

SG at 60 °F = \frac{141.5}{API Gravity + 131.5}

(Further tables give adjustments for temperature).

(See ASTM D1298)

Thus, a heavy oil with a specific gravity of 1.0 (i.e., with the same density as pure water at 60°F) would have an API gravity of:

\frac{141.5}{1.0} - 131.5 = 10.0 degrees API.


Classifications or grades

Generally speaking 40 to 45 API gravity degree oils have a greatest commercial price and values outside this range have lower commercial price. Above 45 degrees API gravity the molecular chains become shorter and less valuable to a refinery.

Crude oil is classified as light, medium or heavy, according to its measured API gravity.

Light crude oil is defined as having an API gravity higher than 31.1 °API

Medium oil is defined as having an API gravity between 22.3 °API and 31.1 °API

Heavy oil is defined as having an API gravity below 22.3 °API.

Not all parties use the same grading.[1] The US Geological Society uses slightly different definitions at [2] Simply put, bitumen sinks in fresh water, while oil floats.

Oil which will not flow at normal temperatures or without dilution is named bitumen and the API gravity is generally less than 10 °API. Bitumen derived from the oil sands deposits in the Alberta, Canada area has an API gravity of around 8 °API. It is 'upgraded' to an API gravity of 31 °API to 33 °API and the upgraded oil is known as synthetic crude.

[Turtle]

Special relativity is a scientific theory describing how matter moves through time and space. When it was first published in 1905 by Albert Einstein, special relativity caused a revolution in the physics community, and made us look at the universe in a new light. Special relativity is one of the most well-confirmed physics theories of all time, and its predictions have been verified to more than twenty decimal places of accuracy.

The two basic postulates of special relativity are that the laws of physics are the same regardless of absolute velocity, and that the speed of light is constant for all observers. If you are in a closed box moving at constant velocity, special relativity predicts that no experiment you do inside the box can tell you how fast the box is moving. Likewise, the speed of light will remain the same for an observer inside the box, even if the box itself is moving at a large fraction of the speed of light.

Special relativity abandons the notions of “absolute space” and “absolute time” developed by Newton. Under special relativity, there is no such thing as a single universal time; rather, time is different for every observer. There is also no single universal measure of space; a single ruler can be longer or shorter depending on who measures it. Finally, special relativity unifies the concepts of space and time into a single four-dimensional structure called “spacetime.”

According to special relativity, if an object is moving at high speed relative to you, the object will appear to behave strangely. Its mass will increase, so that it becomes harder and harder to accelerate as it approaches the speed of light. It will appear to shrink in its direction of motion, becoming more and more distorted as it travels faster. The object's time will also become distorted; if there is a clock on the object, it will appear to tick more slowly. These effects happen to every object, but they only become noticeable once objects approach the speed of light.

Special relativity prohibits any object from traveling faster than the speed of light. If an object appears to go faster than lightspeed for one observer, it must be possible to find an observer who sees the object traveling backwards in time. As an object's velocity approaches that of light, its mass and kinetic energy go to infinity. Even information may not travel faster than light, as this would allow messages to be sent backwards in time as well.

[Hudson]

Merlin's Birth
The tale actually began with a rich man, who lost his family and wealth, because he was tormented by the devil, demon or incubus. This part of the tale, sort resembled the Biblical Book of Job, except it wasn't so much as test, as the devil's determination to destroy every soul in this family.

This man had a large, rich land, a wife, a son and three daughters. To keep it brief, the devil first destroyed his livestock and cattle, which had greatly distressed the man. Then the demon strangled his son in bed. His son's death caused great sorrow in the household that with prompting from the demon the man's wife hanged herself. Struck by this double tragedy, the devastated man never recovered from his melancholy, fallen ill and died.

The demon wasn't satisfied, so he turned his attention on to the man's three daughters. The middle child was the first to succumb to temptation. She was caught committing adultery with a squire, and was buried alive for her sin.

The surviving two daughters sought help from a priest, who was a confessor and a clerk, named Blaise (also called Bleheris or Bleise in Thomas Malory's Morte d'Arthur, 1469). The good priest suspected that the family had been tempted by the devil, so he tried to counsel the two sisters to lead on the right path to God's salvation, through prayers and penances, and by avoiding sins.

At first, the demon's plan to destroy the rest of the family was disrupted by the priest, but the demon could not be denied. With cunning, the devil sent a woman to lure the youngest sister to sin and damnation. The woman advised the sister it would be wrong to lead a life without a man and sex. But the younger sister's fear of sharing the fate of her older sister who had committed adultery. The older woman told the maiden that to avoid punishment of the law, the sister should take on many lovers, by becoming a whore. So the youngest sister sold her soul to the devil, when she started sleeping with every man in town.

When the oldest sister found out what had happened to her younger sibling, she was distressed and fearful that she would also fall into temptation. So she sought help from the good priest again. The priest was amazed at the news of the younger sister's debauchery. So the priest advised the young woman that she must avoid sin and believe in God, Jesus Christ and Holy Spirit. She must pray each evening, and cross herself before going to bed. Blaise warned the girl to avoid anger or wrath, which was the easiest sin to fall into.

So the young woman lived a life of prayers and chastity. Frustrating the demon's plan for another two years.

So the demon cleverly sent the woman's younger sister with her lovers to her house. The woman tried to get her sinful to leave her home, but she refused. The young woman became upset with her sister's sinful behaviour, and became increasingly angry that she soon forgot Blaise's wise warning to avoid wrath. Her sister's lovers started beating her, until she managed to escape.

The woman fled to her room, and locked herself in from her sister's and her sister's lovers. Distressed and angry, she collapsed on her bed, weeping until she fell asleep, but she forgot to pray and commend herself to God, by crossing herself.

The devil, which was really an incubus, saw that the woman had forgotten the priest's warning and that she had sinned through anger. As she slept, the incubus came to her and had sex with her, causing her to conceive a child.

When the woman woke she realised that she had lost her virginity, and couldn't figure out how, since all her doors and windows were locked from the inside. She took her problem to Blaise, who did not think it was possible for to lose her virginity without knowing whom her lover were. So the priest thought she was lying. Yet, the woman was adamant that she had not committed any cardinal sin. Still, the priest was willing to help her, providing that she hadn't lied in her confession, so he placed her on penance. Blaise told her to send for him, if she was ever in trouble with the law because of mysterious pregnancy. The priest as a precaution wrote down when she had lost her virginity.

So she tried to live a life of penance, but soon she discovered that she was pregnant, and couldn't hide her condition from the others. The young woman feared that she would have to face a similar death that of his younger adulterous (middle) sister of being buried alive.

Soon the judge arrived in town and discovered that she was pregnant and the judge thought that she was lying that she couldn't identified her lover, so she was imprisoned, and mostly likely she would die the same way her sister did. Fearing to die, she sent for her confessor.

Blaise failed to persuade the judge to spare the unfortunate girl, so he asked for the postponement of her execution, allowing her to give birth to the child; at least until the child was able to eat by itself. The judge agreed to the priest's proposal.

The girl was imprisoned, and two women were to share her cell, to help with delivery and the care of the pregnant woman. Blaise told the unfortunate damsel that she should have the child immediately baptize after giving birth, before the priest departed.

Months had passed, and the two women helped her delivered the child. They were all shocked and frightened to see her son was so hairy like a wild animal. The young mother remembering her confessor's advice, so she told them to send her son to be baptised. She named the child after her unfortunate father, Merlin. No women in her town were willing to nurse Merlin, because they feared him.

The devil had planned that this child of his would become the Antichrist that the Book of Revelation had foretold. However, the devil defeated his own plan, when the newborn baby was baptised, which free the child from being a demonic monster.

So months have past, as she raised her son in the prison cell, until the eighteenth month. The two women finally decided that it was time for them to leave, but leaving would mean that the young mother would be executed soon. No matter how she would plead, they refused to stay any longer, now that her son could walk and eat by himself.

As the two women were petitioning to leave, Merlin tried to comfort his mother by telling her that he would save her from execution. Stunned that her son could talk, she dropped him on the floor, causing him to wail. The women returned, where the mother told them that her son could speak. The women thought she was mad and trying to kill her own son. Her son did not say anything. The three women tried to trick Merlin into speaking, but he wasn't fooled, but he again tried to comfort his mother.

When news of this wonder became public, the judges had decided that it would be time to execute the mother. When she was brought before the judges, Merlin's mother continued to plea her innocence, saying that she never saw the man who had sex with her while she slept. The judges didn't believe that was possible. So Merlin intervened on his mother's behalf. All the judges were amazed that the boy could talk at this age.

Merlin challenged the chief judge that if need be, he would prove everyone's guilt and his mother's innocence. Merlin told the judge that he knew of the judge's father better than he did. Merlin told the judge that if he could prove her innocence, then the judge must spared his mother (Merlin's); the chief judge agreed, but warned that if he failed then Merlin would share his mother's fate.

So the execution of Merlin's mother was delayed until they can be bring judge's mother before the judges, to prove Merlin's abilities. Merlin tried to persuade the adamant judge to free his mother without revealing the secret of the chief judge's true father, because he knew that the chief judge may not like what he hear. But the judge stubbornly insisted Merlin to prove to him, who is his real father.

So when the chief judge's mother arrived, Merlin revealed to everyone that the judge's father had not died, because his real father was a priest, whom the judge's mother had committed adultery. Everyone thought that the judge was the son of his mother's husband, and no one suspected that the judge was really the son of the priest. The colour drained from the mother's face, as she weakly deny the accusation of adultery from a boy, who was no more than 18 months old. She thought Merlin was the devil. Merlin also mentioned that she had continued to have her long, secret affair with the priest to this present day, because she had most recently slept with priest, as late as last night.

In despair, the judge's mother pleaded with her son for mercy, since she had confessed that her accuser was right. The judge realised that everything Merlin had told them was the truth. The judge acquitted Merlin's mother of all charges, since he could not condemn his own mother, who had been secretly committing adultery.

The judge asked who Merlin's father really was, and Merlin reply that his father was incubus, a demon who could entered a locked house and ravished his mother while she slept.

For this reason, Merlin had a great deal of power, which included ability to see everything of the past. Yet, he also revealed that since his mother's goodness and frequent prayers to God, as well as his baptism after birth, this allowed Merlin to break his tie with demonic father, but still retained this awesome power of foresight. God also gave Merlin the power to see into the future.

Then Merlin privately talked to the judge, revealing that the judge's mother will go to the priest with the news of the revelation. The priest would fear the judge and flee into the woods, before drowning in a pond. Merlin urged the judge to send two men to follow the judge's mother, to prove without doubt of his power.

The judge did what Merlin advised him to do, sending two men to secretly follow his mother, who went to the priest. As Merlin had predicted, the priest thought that now the secret was out, the judge would probably have him tried and executed, so the priest fled from his home, into the woods.

Since the devil had used the priest to commit sin, with the judge's mother, now demon hounded him to commit suicide. Rather than go through the ignoble execution that he thought he would receive from his own son, the priest leaped into the lake. The two men witnessed the priest's death and returned to the judge with the news of his father's death, everything as Merlin had predicted. The judge now believed all that Merlin had claimed, naming him wise.

When Merlin departed with his mother, Blaise decided to accompany the prodigy. Blaise tried to test Merlin's remarkable abilities, yet the priest was fearful of his power. Merlin reassured Blaise that it was God's will that he retained his ability of the devil to see the true past, but the devil's hold on Merlin was broken, when Merlin's mother had followed Blaise's own advice, having Merlin baptised at birth.

Blaise became Merlin's life long friend. It was said that Blaise was the chronicler of the reign of Arthur and the high adventure of the Holy Grail. Blaise otherwise known as Bleheris was also said to be either Welsh or Breton poet, who composed the lost archetype legend of Tristan, which the poet Beroul and Thomas may have used as their source for their own poems.

Yet despite Merlin' assurance to the words that he work on behalf of God and Jesus Christ, some people were still suspicious because he was the son of the devil, so many still didn't trust him, including the Lady of the Lake.
Related Information
Sources
Merlin was written by Robert de Boron, c. 1200.

Vulgate Merlin or Prose Merlin was adaptation of Boron's Merlin, c. 1210.

Historia regum Britanniae ("History of the Kings of Britain", c. 1137) was written by Geoffrey of Monmouth.

Roman de Brut ("Story of Brutus") was written by Wace, c. 1155.

Brut was written by Layamon, c. 1200.


Related Articles
Vortigern, Arthur, Lady of the Lake.

House of Constantine, Grail Legend.

Genealogy: Merlin.

[Turtle]

General relativity is a scientific theory describing how matter, energy, time, and space interact. It was first published by Albert Einstein in 1917 as an extension to his theory of special relativity. General relativity treats space and time as a single unified four-dimensional “spacetime”; under general relativity, matter deforms the geometry of spacetime, and spacetime deformations cause matter to move, which we see as gravity.

The basic assumption of general relativity is that forces caused by gravity and forces caused by acceleration are equivalent. If a closed box is undergoing acceleration, no experiment done within the box can tell if the box is at rest within a gravitational field, or is being accelerated through space. This principle, that all physical laws are the same for accelerated observers and observers in a gravitational field, is known as the equivalence principle; it has been experimentally tested to more than twelve decimal places of accuracy.

The most important consequence of the equivalence principle is that space cannot be Euclidean for all observers. In curved space, such as a warped sheet, the normal laws of geometry do not always hold. It is possible in curved space to construct a triangle whose angles add up to more or less than 180 degrees, or to draw two parallel lines which intersect. Special relativity becomes more and more accurate as the curvature of spacetime goes to zero; if spacetime is flat, the two theories become identical. How matter curves space is computed using the Einstein field equations, which take the form G = T; G describes the curvature of space, while T describes the distribution of matter.

Because space is curved, objects in general relativity do not always move in straight lines, just as a ball will not move in a straight line if you roll it into a funnel. A freely falling object will always take the shortest path from point A to point B, which is not necessarily a straight line; the line that it travels is known as a geodesic. We see the deviations from straight lines as the influence of “gravity”- the Earth does not move in a straight line because the Sun warps spacetime in the Earth's vicinity, making it move in an elliptical orbit.

As gravitational forces and accelerational forces are fully equivalent, all of the effects on a fast-moving object in special relativity also apply to objects deep in gravitational fields. An object close to a source of gravity will emit Doppler-shifted light, just as if it were speeding away. Objects close to gravitational sources will also appear to have time slow down, and any incoming light will be bent by the field. This can cause a strong gravity source to bend light like a lens, bringing distant objects into focus; this phenomenon is often found in deep-sky astronomy, where one galaxy will bend the light of another so that multiple images appear.

[Hudson]

Maslow has set up a hierarchic theory of needs. All of his basic needs are instinctoid, equivalent of instincts in animals. Humans start with a very weak disposition that is then fashioned fully as the person grows. If the environment is right, people will grow straight and beautiful, actualizing the potentials they have inherited. If the environment is not "right" (and mostly it is not) they will not grow tall and straight and beautiful.

Maslow has set up a hierarchy of five levels of basic needs. Beyond these needs, higher levels of needs exist. These include needs for understanding, esthetic appreciation and purely spiritual needs. In the levels of the five basic needs, the person does not feel the second need until the demands of the first have been satisfied, nor the third until the second has been satisfied, and so on. Maslow's basic needs are as follows:

Physiological Needs
These are biological needs. They consist of needs for oxygen, food, water, and a relatively constant body temperature. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the person's search for satisfaction.

Safety Needs
When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and behaviors, the needs for security can become active. Adults have little awareness of their security needs except in times of emergency or periods of disorganization in the social structure (such as widespread rioting). Children often display the signs of insecurity and the need to be safe.

Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness
When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge. Maslow states that people seek to overcome feelings of loneliness and alienation. This involves both giving and receiving love, affection and the sense of belonging.

Needs for Esteem
When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others. Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect, and respect from others. When these needs are satisfied, the person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in the world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless and worthless.

Needs for Self-Actualization
When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person's need to be and do that which the person was "born to do." "A musician must make music, an artist must paint, and a poet must write." These needs make themselves felt in signs of restlessness. The person feels on edge, tense, lacking something, in short, restless. If a person is hungry, unsafe, not loved or accepted, or lacking self-esteem, it is very easy to know what the person is restless about. It is not always clear what a person wants when there is a need for self-actualization.

[BrianFromIowa]

The sword of time will pierce our skin. It doesn't hurt when it begins, but as it works it way on in....the pain grows stronger.

It's true.

So true.

[BrianFromIowa]

Did you know that Billie Jean is NOT my lover? She's just a girl that says I am the one......but the kid is NOT my son!

[Turtle]

The sword of time will pierce our skin. It doesn't hurt when it begins, but as it works it way on in....the pain grows stronger.

It's true.

So true.

Did you know that Billie Jean is NOT my lover? She's just a girl that says I am the one......but the kid is NOT my son!

:icon_roll

[Hoagie]

I like tuwtels.

[Turtle]

Red dwarfs are small, relatively cool stars that are the most numerous type of star in our galaxy, if not the universe. This is difficult to verify because red dwarfs are not very luminous (ranging from 0.01% to 10% the luminosity of the Sun), making it difficult to observe them from astronomical distances. Proxima Centuari, the closest star to the solar system, is a red dwarf.

Red dwarfs have a mass between 7.5% and 50% that of the Sun. More massive stars are called yellow dwarfs, while less massive are called brown dwarfs. All dwarfs are part of the most common class of stars, known as the "main sequence". Outside the main sequence are white dwarfs, which have exhausted their nuclear fuel, and giant stars, which swell up to form stellar nebulae or explode into supernovas.

A red dwarf uses the same nuclear fusion reaction as the Sun to generate energy: fusion of hydrogen into helium through the proton-proton chain interaction. But because red dwarfs are less massive, their core is less compact and the reactions proceed at a slower pace than in larger stars. Thus, the surface temperature of a red dwarf is less than 3,500K, significantly than the Sun's surface temperature, which is about 5,778K.

Red dwarfs are small enough to be fully convective, meaning that the material in the core and the surface gets recirculated constantly. Because of this, red dwarfs are able to burn a larger proportion of their nuclear fuel than more massive stars. In combination with the low rate of nuclear reactions from their low compression, this gives red dwarfs tremendous lifespans: from tens of billions to trillions of years depending on mass.

[Turtle]

Antifreeze is a liquid added to the cooling system of an automobile to ensure that the water within it does not freeze solid. The functioning of antifreeze is based on the observation that the freezing temperature of a liquid is lowered when something is dissolved in it. This something can be either a solid or a liquid. This phenomenon was originally discovered by the French scientist Francois Raoult in the late 19th century. Raoult also discovered that the degree to which the freezing point is lowered is linearly related to the number of molecules dissolved in the liquid.

The decrease of freezing point in diluted solutions can be explained as follows. As the temperature of the liquid decreases, the molecules making it up move more slowly and experience an attractive force between each other. In pure water, at 32°F (0°C), this attractive force is powerful enough to arrange the water molecules in a regular crystal pattern, greatly decreasing their mobility and causing the formation of ice.

In theory, anything that dissolves in water can be used as an antifreeze. In practice, there are several limiting constraints. First is that the substance should mix together with water in any ratio. Some liquids are difficult to dissolve, or crystallize at lower temperatures. Second is that the antifreeze should be inert, that is, not react chemically with anything it comes into contact with in the cooling system. Third, it should be cheap; and fourth, it should not cause the buildup of unwanted pressure within the cooling system -- this means the antifreeze should have a high boiling point.

The almost universally-used substance that matches all these specifications is ethylene glycol, which has a boiling point of 387°F (197°C). A cooling system that has a 1:1 ratio between glycol and water has a freezing point of about -40°F(-40°C), ideal for the normal range of applications.

[BrianFromIowa]

Antifreeze is a liquid added to the cooling system of an automobile to ensure that the water within it does not freeze solid. The functioning of antifreeze is based on the observation that the freezing temperature of a liquid is lowered when something is dissolved in it. This something can be either a solid or a liquid. This phenomenon was originally discovered by the French scientist Francois Raoult in the late 19th century. Raoult also discovered that the degree to which the freezing point is lowered is linearly related to the number of molecules dissolved in the liquid.

The decrease of freezing point in diluted solutions can be explained as follows. As the temperature of the liquid decreases, the molecules making it up move more slowly and experience an attractive force between each other. In pure water, at 32°F (0°C), this attractive force is powerful enough to arrange the water molecules in a regular crystal pattern, greatly decreasing their mobility and causing the formation of ice.

In theory, anything that dissolves in water can be used as an antifreeze. In practice, there are several limiting constraints. First is that the substance should mix together with water in any ratio. Some liquids are difficult to dissolve, or crystallize at lower temperatures. Second is that the antifreeze should be inert, that is, not react chemically with anything it comes into contact with in the cooling system. Third, it should be cheap; and fourth, it should not cause the buildup of unwanted pressure within the cooling system -- this means the antifreeze should have a high boiling point.

The almost universally-used substance that matches all these specifications is ethylene glycol, which has a boiling point of 387°F (197°C). A cooling system that has a 1:1 ratio between glycol and water has a freezing point of about -40°F(-40°C), ideal for the normal range of applications.


:icon_roll

How do you like the roll eyes thing? Huh?

At least I just didn't copy and paste something!:D

[Turtle]

:icon_roll

How do you like the roll eyes thing? Huh?

At least I just didn't copy and paste something!:D

Not sure what we learned here. The point of this thread is to put out information, feel free to try again. I'm sure that you can get it right next time.

[flyerfan116]

A knuckleball (or knuckler for short) is a baseball pitch with an erratic, unpredictable motion. The pitch is thrown so as to minimize the spin of the ball in flight. This causes vortices over the stitched seams of the baseball during its trajectory, which can cause the pitch to change direction, including corkscrew, mid-flight. This makes the pitch difficult for batters to hit, but also difficult for pitchers to control. The challenge also extends to the catcher—who must at least attempt to catch the pitch—and the umpire, who must determine whether the pitch was a strike or ball.

The identity of the first pitcher to throw a knuckleball is uncertain, but it appears to have been developed in the early 20th century. Lew "Hicks" Moren of the Philadelphia Phillies was credited as its inventor by the New York Press in 1908. However, Eddie Cicotte apparently also came up with the pitch while at Indianapolis in 1906, and brought it to the major leagues with him two years later. Since Cicotte had a much more successful career (and also gained later notoriety as one of the Black Sox), his name is the one most often associated with the invention of the pitch today.

As used by Cicotte, the knuckleball was originally thrown by holding the ball with the knuckles, hence the name of the pitch. Ed Summers, an Indianapolis teammate of Cicotte who adopted the pitch and helped develop it, modified this by holding the ball with his fingertips and using the thumb for balance. This grip can also include digging the fingernails into the surface of the ball. The fingertip grip is actually more commonly used today by pitchers who throw the knuckleball. However, most youngsters with smaller hands tend to throw the knuckleball with their knuckles. Sometimes these youngsters will even throw the knuckleball with their knuckles flat against the ball, giving it less spin but also making it difficult to throw any significant distance.

Regardless of how the pitch is gripped, the purpose of the knuckleball is to avoid the rotational spin normally created by the act of throwing a ball. In the absence of this rotation, the ball's trajectory is significantly affected by variations in airflow caused by differences between the smooth surface of the ball and the stitching of its seams. The asymmetric drag that results will tend to deflect the trajectory toward the side with the stitches.

Over the distance from the pitcher's mound to home plate, the effect of these forces is that the knuckleball can "flutter" or "dance" or "jiggle", or actually curve in two opposite directions over its flight. A pitch thrown completely without spin is actually less desirable, however, than one with only a very slight spin (so that the ball completes perhaps between one-half and one rotation on its way from the pitcher to the batter). This will cause the position of the stitches, and therefore the drag that gives the ball its motion, to change somewhat as the ball travels, thus making its flight even more erratic. Even a ball thrown without rotation will "flutter" somewhat, due to the 'apparent wind' it feels as its trajectory changes throughout its flight path.

A hazard of the knuckleball is evident in one sportscaster's description of the ball's behavior: "It either dances in or prances out." As a safety measure (for their Earned Run Average) some pitchers will impart a slight topspin so that if no force causes the ball to dance it will move downward in flight. Another drawback is that runners on base can usually advance more easily than if a conventional pitcher is on the mound. This is due to both the knuckleball's low average speed (55–75 MPH) and erratic movement, which forces the catcher to keep focusing on the ball even after the runner takes off. These factors lead to the scarcity of the so-called knuckleballer.
The unpredictable motion of the knuckleball makes it one of the most difficult pitches for a catcher to handle. Catchers tend to be charged with a significantly higher number of passed balls when a knuckleball pitcher is on the mound. A team will sometimes employ a catcher solely for games started by a knuckleballer. The "knuckleball catcher" is equipped with an oversized knuckleball catcher's mitt, similar to a first baseman's glove. The Boston Red Sox did this fairly systematically in their 2004 world championship season, with Doug Mirabelli regularly catching in place of Jason Varitek when Tim Wakefield was pitching. Jason Varitek would sometimes catch for Wakefield anyway so they would have more batting power. Sometimes, it proved to be disastrous when Varitek was catching. In 2005, Mirabelli was injured, so Varitek had no choice but to catch for Wakefield. Wakefield's ERA was over 9.00 when Varitek caught for him. Geno Petralli set the record for allowing four passed balls in one inning while trying to catch knuckleball pitcher Charlie Hough in 1987. Varitek holds the postseason record with three in Game 5 of the 2004 American League Championship Series while catching Wakefield.

In 2006, after Mirabelli was traded to the San Diego Padres for Mark Loretta, the Red Sox brought in Josh Bard to be Varitek's back-up and to catch Wakefield. However, Bard was unable to adjust to the knuckleball, giving up 10 passed balls in just five games. On May 1, 2006, the Red Sox traded Bard and a minor league pitcher (Cla Meredith) to San Diego to reacquire Mirabelli. In 2007, Mirabelli again was injured on August 17, playing the Los Angeles Angels. Kevin Cash was brought up from the minor leagues to catch Wakefield, and has had good success in two games so far this season (letting Wakefield pitch 14 shut-out innings over two games).

Former Atlanta Braves star Dale Murphy was a catcher all through his minor league career and entered the majors that way, but was moved to center field beginning with the 1980 season because catching teammate Phil Niekro's knuckleballs was too hard on his knees. He had several knee surgeries before then.

Another pitcher who caused great trouble in catching his knuckleball was Jared Fernandez. In a game on August 14, 2002,[1] catcher Jason LaRue fell victim to three passed balls in a single inning, with another ball that got away being recorded as a wild pitch.

[Turtle]

Keelhauling was a type of naval punishment in the 17th and 18th century. Although officially only the Dutch Navy practiced it, under the name of kielhalen. Keelhauling is a brutal form of corporal punishment which involves dragging the offender underwater from one side of a ship to the other. In a period when the word of the ship captain was law, keelhauling was only one in a variety of unpleasant punishment tactics which could easily kill a sailor.

Keelhauling first appeared in 1560, when a Dutch ordinance outlined the practice and the offenses for which it could be used. Other maritime powers including Britain adopted the practice as well, although it began to be phased out in the 1700s. The Dutch Navy did not ban keelhauling until 1853, when a more humane era of sailing frowned on the practice.

When a sailor was keelhauled, he would be stripped and tied so that he could not swim. Usually a weight was attached to his legs to pull him away from the ship. The sailor was attached to a rope which ran underwater from one side of the ship to the other, and he was rapidly pulled through the water. Assuming the sailor did not usually drown, he would severely injured by extremely sharp barnacles on the underside of the ship, known as the keel. Keelhauling would leave severe scars on the flesh of the sailor, serving as a constant reminder of the event.

While keelhauling is often associated with pirates, it was more commonly used by the Navy. Navy sailors were essentially viewed as property, and the captain of the ship held powers of life and death over them. Severe discipline on ships was supposed to prevent theft and mutiny, although it often had the opposite effect. Sailors were sometimes kidnapped and forced to serve on board naval ships, where severe punishment served as the only motivation to work.

Modern day sailors are unlikely to encounter true keelhauling, except in jest. However, the punishment does offer an unpleasant example of the way in which justice used to be carried out on naval ships. Most sailors and merchant mariners would agree that the current system of maritime justice is far more humane and effective. The term has come to be associated with a harsh verbal rebuke in a maritime or landlocked environment, a punishment which would seem vastly preferable to potential death or serious injury.

[NuttyJim]

A slap shot in ice hockey is the hardest shot. It has four stages which are executed in one fluid motion:

The player winds up his hockey stick by raising it behind his body, sometimes raising the blade to shoulder height or higher.
Next the player violently "slaps" the ice slightly behind the puck and uses his or her weight to bend the stick, storing energy in it like a spring. It is this bending of the stick that gives the slapshot its amazing speed. Just like a bow and arrow, the stick's desire to return to being straight is transferred to the puck, giving it much more speed than just hitting it alone could do.
When the face of the stick blade strikes the puck, the player rolls his or her wrists and shifts his or her weight so that the energy stored in the stick is released through the puck.
Finally, the player follows through, ending up with the stick pointed towards the desired target.
The slap shot is harder than other shots, and because of the violent motion involved, somewhat less accurate. It also takes longer to execute; a player usually cannot take a slap shot while under any significant pressure from an opposing player because the opponent could easily interfere during the windup. The slap shot is most commonly used by a defenceman at the point, especially during a power play, although a forward will sometimes find an opportunity to use it.

At the yearly NHL all-star "hardest shot" skill competition, the winning slapshot typically propels the puck at around 100 miles per hour (160 kilometres per hour). Al Iafrate holds the record during an NHL All-Star skills competition at 105.2 mph. The hardest slap shot on record is 106.6 mph set by Chad Kilger on December 3rd, 2006 during the Toronto Maple Leafs skills competition. Kilger broke the record of 106.0 mph, held by Shawn Heins, set in AHL All-Stars game.

The invention of the slapshot is credited to Bernard Boom Boom Geoffrion of the Montreal Canadiens, hence the nickname. However, recent evidence has come to light that suggests that the first player to utilize the slapshot was a member of the Coloured Hockey League, decades before Geoffrion was credited for the innovation.

[Turtle]

The invention of the slapshot is credited to Bernard Boom Boom Geoffrion of the Montreal Canadiens, hence the nickname. However, recent evidence has come to light that suggests that the first player to utilize the slapshot was a member of the Coloured Hockey League, decades before Geoffrion was credited for the innovation.

Coloured Hockey League...I have never heard of this.

[Turtle]

Confucius was a Chinese philosopher who was born in 551 BCE. Confucius is a corruption of the name K'ung Fu-tzu. Although K'ung Fu-tzu was the philosopher's correct name, he has historically been referred to as Confucius in Western countries.

The religion of Confucianism derives its name from Confucius, and is based on his writings. These writings were intended to be advice for the rulers of China in the sixth century BCE, and were later studied by the followers of Confucius. In addition, his followers brought in ideas originating in Buddhism and Taoism, as Confucianism spread from China to other Asian countries, including Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

One idea emphasized by Confucius was "beautiful conduct." He thought that if everyone in a society could achieve "beautiful conduct," or what he considered correct behavior, society could become perfect. This involved avoiding all extreme actions and emotions, being considerate to others, respecting family, and worshiping ancestors.

Confucius may not have considered himself to have founded a religion. He was a philosopher, not a prophet, and did not emphasize spirituality, but instead certain behaviors and being a good citizen. He believed that five relationships formed the basis of a stable, happy society. These five relationships include those between ruler and subject, older brother and younger brother, father and son, husband and wife, and the relationship between two friends.

After his death, Confucius' grandson and disciples continued spreading his philosophies. Confucius is considered a great teacher, rather than a god. He is well-known for his sayings, such as "What you do not wish for yourself, do not do to others," and "Respect yourself and others will respect you." Rituals which strengthen the five relationships are important to followers of his teachings.

Confucius died in 479 BCE. His hometown of Qufu became well-known after his death, and is now visited by many tourists, as well as Chinese citizens wishing to visit the nearby temples and Confucius' grave. It is unclear whether Confucius would have approved of the many temples dedicated to him, or if he would have wished for his followers to continue with his teaching, and not make him the object of veneration.

[Turtle]

In technical biochemistry terms, lipids are molecular organic compounds, composed largely of carbon and hydrogen, that are essential for cell growth. Lipids are non-soluble in water and combine with carbohydrates and proteins to form the majority of all plant and animal cells. Lipids are more commonly synonymous with the word "fats" when speaking in terms of personal health, and though all fats are lipids, not all lipids are fats.

The three major purposes of lipids are energy storage, cell membrane development, and serving as a component to hormones and vitamins in the body. In healthcare, physicians order lipid tests or lipid profiles to measure cholesterol and triglycerides in a person's blood. Lipoprotein is the medical term used to define a combination of fat and protein.

Cholesterol is a naturally occurring substance in the body and is comprised of lipids. Cholesterol is separated into two types, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL). In a lipid test, the lipoproteins are separated so the level of each can be measured. Lipid tests are often part of preventative routine care, as they help determine whether there is significant risk for artherosclerosis, a hardening of the arteries that interferes with or interrupts blood flow. Lipoprotein levels are measured and dietary changes are usually in order when total cholesterol levels approach or rise above 200 milligrams per deciliter in the blood.

Fatty acids, also comprised of lipids, are an important dietary concern. Some fatty acids are essential and others are harmful. Fatty acids are categorized as mono-saturated, mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated.

Saturated fats come from animal sources such as milk, butter, and meats; and raise cholesterol levels in the blood. Unsaturated fats are of vegetable origin and decrease blood cholesterol. Sources of essential fatty acids include fish and beans. Vegetables, grains, and nuts are also considered an essential part of a cholesterol-lowering diet.

[Turtle]

In many parts of Asia, nations follow the lunar calendar rather than the Gregorian calendar used by the rest of the world. As a result, the year starts on a different day, usually in January or February by the Gregorian calendar. Many nations including Vietnam and Korea celebrate the lunar New Year with festivals and special foods. The Chinese, however, have turned the celebration into an art form: a 15 day festival called the Spring Festival in China, although it is known to the rest of the world as Chinese New Year.

Chinese New Year begins on the first day of the first moon of the year, which is considered to be a particularly auspicious day. Children are given hong bao, lucky red envelopes full of money, and households exchange visits and gifts. Most celebrants at Chinese New Year wear red, which is a lucky color, and also refrain from reflecting on the past year and uttering unlucky words, as it is believed that the first day of the new year will determine your fortune in the months to come.

Chinese New Year continues with 15 days of celebration and auspicious days, including a day to welcome the god of wealth, a day to celebrate farming and produce, and days to celebrate friends and family. Friendships and family relationships are a very important part of Chinese New Year, and a great deal of food and dinner invitations are exchanged as part of this tradition. Numerous lucky foods are served throughout the Chinese New Year festival, and after all that rich dining, the 13th day of the festival is set aside for eating rice and bitter greens to cleanse the palate.

On the 15th day, the Chinese New Year celebration culminates with the Lantern Festival, which is traditionally held at night. During the Lantern Festival, hundreds of citizens flood the street with lanterns representing wealth, animals, historical figures, plants, and a variety of other things. The lanterns are paraded through towns and cities throughout China, Taiwan, and parts of the world with large Chinese communities. The Lantern Festival ends with a burst of fireworks to celebrate the upcoming year while celebrants eat special round dumplings to celebrate unity.



And puuunt!

[Turtle]

bump...come on 'baggers, post some learnin'

[izzy izkowitz]

Titan (/ˈtaɪ.tən/, from Ancient Greek Τῑτάν) or Saturn VI is the largest moon of Saturn, the only moon known to have a dense atmosphere,[6] and the only object other than Earth for which clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found.[7]

Titan is the twentieth-most distant moon of Saturn and sixth-farthest among those large enough to assume a spheroid shape. Frequently described as a satellite with planet-like characteristics, Titan's diameter is roughly 50% larger than Earth's moon and it is 80% more massive. It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System, after Jupiter's moon Ganymede, and it is larger by diameter than the smallest planet, Mercury (although only half as massive). Titan was the first known moon of Saturn, discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens.[8]

Titan is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material. The dense atmosphere prevented understanding of Titan's surface until new information accumulated with the arrival of the Cassini–Huygens mission in 2004, including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in the satellite's polar regions. These are the only large, stable bodies of surface liquid known to exist anywhere other than Earth. The surface is geologically young; although mountains and several possible cryovolcanoes have been discovered, it is relatively smooth and few impact craters have been discovered.

The atmosphere of Titan is largely composed of nitrogen and its climate includes methane and ethane clouds. The climate—including wind and rain—creates surface features that are similar to those on Earth, such as sand dunes and shorelines, and like Earth, is dominated by seasonal weather patterns. With its liquids (both surface and subsurface) and robust nitrogen atmosphere, Titan is viewed as analogous to the early Earth, although at much lower temperature. The satellite has thus been cited as a possible host for microbial extraterrestrial life or, at least, as a prebiotic environment rich in complex organic chemistry. Researchers have suggested a possible underground liquid ocean might serve as a biotic environment.[9][10]

[Turtle]

An IRA is an individual retirement account. IRAs comprise a special class of retirement accounts in the United States which give varying tax benefits depending on the type of IRA chosen. A Roth IRA is taxed as money is added to it, which allows it to develop with no further taxation and to be dipped into with no taxation.

A Roth IRA can be invested in a range of gaining strategies, including mutual funds and traditional stocks. When money is first invested in a Roth IRA, it is federally taxed based on the tax bracket one currently inhabits, something that may be a downside for some when compared to a traditional IRA. When money is taken out of the Roth IRA, however, funds up to the amount put into it are always federal-tax free, and often the entirety of the funds are free from federal taxes.

There are also penalties associated with a Roth IRA and withdrawing money early. By withdrawing before retirement, one may incur both federal taxation and a 10% direct penalty. Luckily, these penalties are not always triggered, as there are exemptions for cases such as purchasing a house or paying for college. There is never a penalty for withdrawing money up to the amount one has put into the account, penalties are only ever incurred when drawing on earnings.

[NuttyJim]

A hangover (veisalgia) describes the sum of unpleasant physiological effects following heavy consumption of drugs and liquor, particularly alcoholic beverages. The most commonly reported characteristics of a hangover include headache, nausea, sensitivity to light and noise, lethargy, depression and thirst.

Hypoglycemia, dehydration, Acetaldehyde intoxication, and vitamin B12 deficiency are all theorized causes of hangover symptoms. Hangovers usually last 1 to 4 hours, although some have been reported to last two or three days after alcohol was last consumed.

An alcohol hangover is associated with a variety of symptoms that may include dehydration, fatigue, headache, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, weakness, elevated body temperature, hypersalivation, difficulty concentrating, anxiety, irritability, sensitivity to light and noise, erratic motor functions, and trouble sleeping. Many people will also be repulsed by the thought or taste of alcohol during hangover. The symptoms vary from person to person, and occasion to occasion, usually beginning several hours after drinking. It is not clear whether hangovers affect cognitive abilities.

Hangovers are multi-causal. Ethanol has a dehydrating effect by causing increased urine production (such substances are known as diuretics), which causes headaches, dry mouth, and lethargy. Dehydration causes the brain to shrink away from the skull slightly.[3] This can be mitigated by drinking water after consumption of alcohol. Alcohol's effect on the stomach lining can account for nausea. Because of the increased NADH production during metabolism of ethanol by the enzymes alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase, excess NADH can build up and slow down gluconeogenesis in the liver, thus causing hypoglycemia.

Another factor contributing to a hangover are the products from the breakdown of ethanol via liver enzymes. Ethanol is converted to acetaldehyde by the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, and then from acetaldehyde to acetic acid by the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase. Acetaldehyde (ethanal) is mildly toxic, contributing to hangover. These two reactions also require the conversion of NAD+ to NADH. With an excess of NADH, the lactate dehydrogenase reaction is driven to produce lactate from pyruvate (the end product of glycolysis) in order to regenerate NAD+ and sustain life. This diverts pyruvate from other pathways such as gluconeogenesis, thereby impairing the ability of the liver to supply glucose to tissues, especially the brain. Because glucose is the primary energy source of the brain, this lack of glucose contributes to hangover symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, mood disturbances, and decreased attention and concentration.

There are various nervous system effects: the removal of the depressive effects of alcohol in the brain probably account for the light and noise sensitivity.

In addition, it is thought that the presence of other alcohols (such as fusel oils), by-products of the alcoholic fermentation also called congeners, exaggerate many of the symptoms (cogeners may also be zinc or other metals added primarily to sweet liqueurs to enhance their flavor); this probably accounts for the mitigation of the effects when distilled alcohol, particularly vodka, is consumed instead.

The amount of congeners in the drink may also have an effect. Red wines have more congeners than white wines, and some people note less of a hangover with white wine. Some individuals have a strong negative reaction to red wine called Red Wine Headache that can affect them within 15 minutes after drinking a single glass of red wine. The headache is usually accompanied by nausea and flushing.

In alcohol metabolism, one molecule of ethanol (the primary active ingredient in alcoholic beverages) produces 2 molecules of NADH, utilizing Vitamin B12 as a coenzyme. Over-consumption of ethanol may cause vitamin B12 deficiency as well.

There is debate about whether a hangover might be prevented or at least mitigated. There is currently no known proven mechanism for making oneself sober short of waiting for the body to metabolize ingested alcohol, which occurs via oxidation through the liver before alcohol leaves the body.

A four page literature review in British Medical Journal on hangover cures by Max Pittler of the Peninsula Medical School at Exeter University and colleagues concludes: "No compelling evidence exists to suggest that any conventional or complementary intervention is effective for preventing or treating alcohol hangover. The most effective way to avoid the symptoms of alcohol induced hangover is to practice moderation."[4]

Potentially beneficial remedies

Rehydration: "Effective interventions include rehydration, prostaglandin inhibitors, and vitamin B6".[5]
Narcotics: Codeine, dihydrocodeine, tilidine and other such medication directly work against many of the effects of alcohol hangover. However, preparations containing acetaminophen (paracetamol/Tylenol) should be avoided if possible when alcohol is in the system because of the risk of potentially fatal liver damage. Consumption of narcotics along with alcohol or shortly after consumption thereof is potentially dangerous in itself because of added depressant effects on the central nervous system.
Magnesium: It is well studied that excessive alcohol consumption can lead to a magnesium deficiency, or reduce levels of magnesium, as well as depleting zinc and other minerals. Individuals with lower magnesium levels may experience more severe hangovers. A healthy diet that contains an adequate intake of magnesium and other minerals may help in the long term to reduce the effects of hangovers. The hangover symptoms of headache, and light and sound senitivity, are very similar to those of migraine. A common treatment for chronic migraine headaches is magnesium. Some scientists hypothesize that a hangover may be exhibiting at least some symptoms of an acute magnesium deficiency.
Opuntia ficus indica: A 2004 clinical study suggests that taking an extract of a prickly pear cactus fruit (Opuntia ficus indica) five hours before drinking had a statistically significant effect on three hangover symptoms. "Three of the 9 symptoms – nausea, dry mouth, and anorexia – were significantly reduced by OFI." (Anorexia in this context simply means loss of appetite, not to be confused with anorexia nervosa.)[6][7] The authors conclude, "The symptoms of the alcohol hangover are largely due to the activation of inflammation. An extract of the OFI plant has a moderate effect on reducing hangover symptoms, apparently by inhibiting the production of inflammatory mediators."
Tolfenamic acid (TA): A study concludes, "TA was found significantly better than placebo in the subjective evaluation of drug efficacy (p<0.001) and in reducing the reported hangover symptoms in general (p < 0.01). In the TA group, significantly lower symptom scores were obtained for headache (p<0.01), and for nausea, vomiting, irritation, tremor, thirst, and dryness of mouth (all p < 0.05)."[8]
Vitamin B6 (pyritinol): Some studies have found that Vitamin B6 reduces hangovers.[5][9]
Chlormethiazole: "Chlormethiazole was found to lower blood pressure and adrenaline output and, furthermore, to relieve unpleasant physical symptoms, but did not affect fatigue and drowsiness. The cognitive test results were only slightly influenced by this agent, while psychomotor performance was significantly impaired. Subjects with severe subjective hangover seemed to benefit more from the chlormethiazole treatment than subjects with a mild hangover."[10] "However, all 8 subjects had unpleasant nasal symptoms following chlormethiazole, and it is therefore not an ideal hypnotic for this age group."[11]
Rosiglitazone: [Study in rats] "Rosiglitazone alleviated the symptoms of ethanol-induced hangover by inducing ALD2 expression…"[12]
Acetylcysteine: There are claims that N-acetylcysteine can relieve or prevent symptoms of hangover through scavenging of acetylaldehyde.
"Artichoke and Sarsaparilla extract": A November 2004 issued U.S. Patent No. 6,824,798 states that the method described in the patent "results in complete elimination of veisalgia (hangover) in more than 80% of individuals". These plant extracts, when administered separately, do not seem to have a similar effect. The patent further states that the right combination of the extracts of both of these plants are required and that they then contain a complex of polyphenols, flavonoids, and phytosterols that are effective.

Possibly ineffective remedies:

Globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus) extract: "Our results suggest that artichoke extract is not effective in preventing the signs and symptoms of alcohol-induced hangover."[13]
Propranolol: "We conclude that propranolol does not prevent the symptoms of hangover."[14][15]
Fructose and glucose: "The results indicate that both fructose and glucose effectively inhibit the metabolic disturbances induced by ethanol but they do not affect the symptoms or signs of alcohol intoxication and hangover."[16]
Kudzu (Pueraria lobata): With respect to preventing hangovers, "The evidence regarding kudzu's effectiveness is mixed" and "There are no studies to demonstrate that kudzu can serve as a morning-after potion for eliminating hangovers as used in traditional Chinese practice."[17]

The term hangover was originally a 19th century expression describing unfinished business – something left over from a meeting – or ‘survival.’ In 1904, the meaning "after-effect of drinking too much" first surfaced

[Turtle]

During a national presidential election, each state sends representatives, members of the Electoral College to vote on behalf of the state's population. Our Constitution provides for the electors as a way of sharing power between the Federal and State governments in our country's system of federalism. This way, neither the government nor the population at large are completely responsible for electing a president.

Each state, plus the District of Columbia, gets a set number of electors based somewhat on population. The number of electors is just the number of Senators (always two) plus the number of Representatives in the House. This does not track proportionally, from state to state, based on population. The numbers are updated every ten years with results from the National Census. For the decade 2000-2010, there are 538 total electors. A presidential candidate must receive a majority of votes from the Electoral College, or 270 votes, to be declared the winner.

While the Constitution provides for such a system, it is not detailed in the methods of carrying it out. The Office of the Federal Register oversees the process of elector nomination, usually at state party conventions, and organizes their voting. Almost all states use a winner-takes-all system, so that electors are pledged to vote for whichever candidate wins the popular vote of the state. Only Maine and Nebraska use proportional systems that might award some electoral votes to one candidate and some to another. In fact, the electors are not legally bound to vote for the leading candidate, but they are usually loyal to their party. If there is no candidate who receives a majority of Electoral votes, the decision is made in Congress, where each state gets only one vote, cast by a Representative.

[Turtle]

Chemotherapy, broadly speaking, is any regimen of therapy that makes use of chemicals to try to fight a disease. More specifically, it usually refers to a specific set of practices in which chemicals are used to help fight cancer. Since the widespread adoption of chemotherapy to fight cancer, the more general use of the term is rarely used outside of medical circles.

In the 1940s, a chemical used during wartime, nitrogen mustard, was found to be somewhat effective in treating lymphoma. Ultimately, the effects turned out to be very temporary, but it nonetheless demonstrated to the medical establishment that chemicals could be used to suppress, and perhaps even to eliminate, cancer. Throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, further research was conducted on a wide array of cancers, utilizing different chemical strategies.

By the late 1950s, a treatment first used in the 1940s on children with leukemia was found to be effective in completely destroying a type of tumor called choriocarcinoma. This was the first great victory for chemotherapy in curing cancerous elements, and it helped push along the building enthusiasm for chemical cures for cancer. The 1950s also heralded what was perhaps the peak of the West’s idealization of chemicals of all stripes, and this general enthusiasm for modernity was a driving force behind funding and widespread support for chemotherapy.

In the mid-1960s, after a number of subsequent breakthroughs in various individual areas of cancer research, a new technique was developed that would prove to be one of the most important ever for the field of cancer research. This was combinational chemotherapy, by which a number of different chemicals were administered to attack different trouble regions and to bolster one another in the event that the cancer cells mutated to resist a single chemical. By the late 1960s, this technique had proven effective in curing a significant portion of lymphoma patients to whom it was administered.

Chemotherapy works by impairing the reproduction of the fastest-splitting cells, a property common in cancerous cells. Unfortunately, a number of other cells also have a high rate of mitosis, and are therefore targeted by many chemotherapy treatments as well. Hair cells are perhaps the most visible of these, as many subjects of chemotherapy lose their hair as their drug regimens attack the cells responsible for hair growth along with cancerous cells.

Chemotherapy has a number of negative side effects, including severe nausea, bowel problems, a wide range of toxic effects, hemorrhaging, and a sometimes fatal suppression of the immune system. Chemotherapy, although relatively successful, is certainly not a silver bullet for fighting cancer, and many people consider the risks and potential damage not worth the chance of cure. For all its ills, however, chemotherapy offers the best hope for many victims of cancer, and as a field it is constantly innovating and progressing.

[izzy izkowitz]

The story of Linger Longer Communities begins in the late 1800s with a pair of cousins: Mercer Reynolds, Sr. and James Madison Reynolds. Although both men were born in the Greene County area, Mercer left Greene County before the turn of the 20th century to pursue industrial business interests in Chattanooga, while James tended to the family's wooded land and continued to acquire more acreage. By the 1920s, the Reynolds family built their beloved hunting and fishing lodge, The Rock House, on land they'd come to call "Linger Longer," because of their desire to remain at the retreat.


By the 1930s, the combined family property--75 miles east of Atlanta and 70 miles west of Augusta--numbered thousands of acres. When the Wallace Dam was created, flooding the Oconee River to form Lake Oconee, the Rock House was lost to the 19,000-acre waters, as it became the second largest lake in Georgia. However, now the beautiful wooded landscape also features a glimmering lakeside retreat. With this jewel, a vision formed: to build a community of rural second homes and invite families to establish their own lifelong memories and traditions at Reynolds, in short, to linger longer.


Today, Reynolds Plantation and Reynolds Landing have grown to encompass more than 14,000 acres and more than 90 miles of shoreline on Lake Oconee. A world-class golfing and lakeside destination, these two Linger Longer Communities offer championship golf courses, tennis, The Lake Club, marinas and more. The newest Linger Longer Community is Achasta, located within the historic mountain town of Dahlonega, Ga.


With each new offering, Linger Longer Communities is committed to providing world-class amenities that culminate in a complete lifestyle for members. More than just a collection of features, the Linger Longer Communities lifestyle includes new property releases with lake, golf and wooded views, world-class amenities and a range of social activities, member events, golfing and waterfront activities that make our members want to Linger Longer.

[Chip Vaughn]

The experimental product AE 0172747 is an HPPD-inhibiting herbicide being developed for postemergence grass and broadleaf control in corn. Two field studies were conducted in 2006 at the Southern Illinois University research farms in Belleville and Carbondale to evaluate the efficacy of AE 0172747 applied alone on grass species and in several tank-mixtures of herbicides and adjuvants to determine their influence on grass control.

Control of giant foxtail and broadleaf signalgrass was at least 87 and 91%, respectively, for AE 0172747 applied alone with either crop oil concentrate (COC) or methylated seed oil (MSO). The use of COC, MSO, nicosulfuron, foramsulfuron, or atrazine with AE 0172747 had only a slight impact on control of giant foxtail and broadleaf signalgrass. Conversely, control of fall panicum with AE 0172747 applied alone was less than 8% regardless of adjuvant. Control of fall panicum was 45 to 89% from combinations of foramsulfuron plus AE 0172747 and control generally increased as the rate of foramsulfuron increased. Control of fall panicum was 72 to 96% from combinations of nicosulfuron plus AE 0172747. However, increasing the rate of nicosulfuron beyond 75% of the normal use rate did not usually increase control of fall panicum. In most instances, fall panicum control was greater when MSO was utilized with either foramsulfuron or nicosulfuron tank-mixed with AE 0172747 compared with COC. When the sulfonylurea grass herbicides were applied with AE 0172747 the addition of atrazine provided variable results for control of fall panicum.

/abstract from my 2006 NCWSS presentation

[NuttyJim]

****** is a pejorative term used to refer to dark-skinned people, mostly those of African ancestry. For centuries, it has held negative connotations, and in modern times it is considered a racial slur in most contexts.[1] Modern colloquial uses include a synonym for "person" and an effort to "reclaim" the word for black people (see nigga), which remains a controversial topic.[2][3]

Earlier variants (such as neger or negar) derive from the Spanish/Portuguese word negro, meaning "black", and probably also the French nègre, which has also been used pejoratively (but also positively as in Négritude), derived from negro (the ordinary French word for "black" being noir). Both negro and noir (and therefore also nègre and ******) ultimately come from nigrum, the accusative form of the Latin word niger, meaning "black".

In Colonial America, negars was used in 1619 by John Rolfe, describing slaves shipped to Virginia colony.[4] Neger (sometimes spelled "neggar") also prevailed in northern New York under the Dutch and also in Philadelphia, in its Moravian and Pennsylvania Dutch communities. For example, the African Burial Ground in New York City was originally known as "Begraafplaats van de Neger" (Dutch phrase meaning "Cemetery of the negro" in English).

In the United States, the word ****** was not always considered derogatory, but was instead used by some as merely denotative of black skin, as it was in other parts of the English-speaking world. In nineteenth-century literature, there are many uses of the word ****** with no intended negative connotation. Charles Dickens, and Joseph Conrad (who published The ****** of the 'Narcissus' in 1897) used the word without racist intent. Mark Twain often put the word into the mouths of his Southern characters, white and black, but did not use the word when speaking in his own voice in his autobiographical Life on the Mississippi.

In the United Kingdom and other parts of the English-speaking world, the word was often used to refer to people of Pakistani or Indian descent, or merely to darker-skinned foreigners in general; in his 1926 Modern English Usage, H. W. Fowler observed that when the word was applied to "others than full or partial negroes," it was "felt as an insult by the person described, & betrays in the speaker, if not deliberate insolence, at least a very arrogant inhumanity." The note was excised from later editions of the book.

In the 1800s, as ****** began to acquire the pejorative connotation it holds today, the term "Colored" gained popularity as a kinder alternative to negro and associated terms. For example, abolitionists in Boston, Massachusetts posted warnings to "Colored People of Boston and vicinity." The name of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People reflects the preference for this term at the time of the NAACP's founding in 1909.

Southern dialect in many parts of the southern United States changes the pronunciation of "Negro" to "nigra" (used most famously by Lyndon B. Johnson, a proponent of civil rights). In North American English, the transition from negro > ****** represented a formerly widespread sound shift. In the early editions of his dictionary, Noah Webster suggested the new spellings of zeber for "zebra", as well as neger for "Negro".[5]

Black became the preferred term in English in the late 1960s, and this continues to the present day. In the United States this has been displaced to some extent by African American, at least in politically correct usage; this resembles the term Afro-American that was in vogue in the early 1970s. Nevertheless, black continues in widespread use as a racial designation in the United States and is rarely regarded as offensive.

Today the word is often spelled nigga or niggah, in imitation of the manner in which some pronounce it. (Less-common variants are nigguh or even nikuh.) Other variations, designed to avoid the term itself, include nookah, nukka, nagger and the much older "jigger."


Usage

In the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, "******" is now established as a derogatory and often "criminal" word, but as recently as the 1950s it was widely regarded as acceptable in Britain for black people to be referred to as *******. By the 1970s, this and other offensive racial slurs had been outlawed by stricter government legislation.

Historically, British people would often describe a dark shade of brown as "****** brown", but this and all other uses of the word "******" have long since been rendered politically incorrect in Britain.


In the United States
In the United States, the word was freely used by some whites and blacks until the Civil Rights Era of the 1960s. It seems that the word acquired a pejorative meaning in the Northern United States before acquiring the same connotation in the South.

In the first half of the 20th Century, before Major League Baseball was integrated, ball players with a dark complexion were sometimes nicknamed "Nig."[6][7] The following major league players bore the nickname: Johnny Beazley (1941-49), Howard Berry (1921-22), Bobby Bragan (1940-48), Nig Clarke (1905-20), Nig Cuppy (1892-1901), Nig Fuller (1902), Johnny Grabowski (1923-31), Nig Lipscomb (1937), Charlie Niebergall (1921-24), Nig Perrine (1907), and Frank Smith (1904-15).

Louisiana Governor Earl Long also used the term when advocating expanded voting rights for African Americans. At that time, the term was less noteworthy than the expressions of support by white Southerners, as it was a common regional term for blacks, along with negro and colored.

Today, the implied racism of the term is so strong that the use of ****** in most situations is a social taboo. Many American magazines and newspapers will not even print the word in full, instead using n*gg*r, n**ger, n——, or simply "the N-word."

A Washington Post article on Strom Thurmond's 1948 candidacy for President of the United States went so far as to replace it with the periphrasis "the less-refined word for black people." The word was also completely excised from the Microsoft Encarta dictionary, despite its common usage.

The shock effect of the word can also be used to deliberately cause offense. Several activists, such as Dick Gregory, have said the use of "N-word" instead of ****** robs younger generations of the full history of black people in America.

The term ****** has sometimes been extended in meaning so as to refer to all disadvantaged people. For example, Ron Dellums, an American politician, once said that "it's time for somebody to lead all of America's *******".[8]


Poster of the 1975 movie Boss ******The New York City Council passed a resolution on February 28, 2007 that symbolically bans the use of the word ******. There are no penalties for non-compliance. The resolution also asks that songs including the word ****** in their lyrics be excluded from consideration for the Grammy Awards.[9][10]


In Australia
In Australia, though the word's meaning is generally understood, it is now rarely used by urban whites in any context; when referring to indigenous Australians, the casual terms Abo and the more derogatory boong or coon are used in its place. ****** is sometimes used amongst working class Australians, when used in a casual sense between friends or work colleagues of both white and mixed race. It is generally used in imitation of American slang e.g. "Wassup, my ******." Black, Aboriginal or Māori people may use the term to greet each other. Australians, black or white, do not on the whole have the same sensitivity to the word as Americans, at least when it is used in a lighthearted, non-derogatory fashion among established groups of friends. It would not be acceptable to use the term to a stranger or casual acquaintance. The relaxed attitude is mainly because there was no direct African slave trading. Australia did however enslave indigenous Australians, particularly in the pearling industry[citation needed]. The mistreatment of the indigenous people is generally covered under the term of "racial abuse" rather than "slavery"; however, increasing exposure to American vernacular, sensitivities and culture in general, has sensitised conservative Australia to its use.

However, ****** has seen common use in rural or semi-frontier districts. In this context, the usage was British colonial, that is, applying generically to dark-skinned people of any origin (cf. Rudyard Kipling). This has led to controversy, since Australian Aborigines have started to take the term strongly to heart, in both the pejorative and revisionist senses (see below under Names of places and things).


Other languages
In various Romance languages, including the Spanish and Portuguese dialects used in Latin American and parts of Africa, a variety of words cognate with the Latin niger and sounding similar to the English word ****** are used without the disparaging connotation the word holds in English. The French cognate nègre, however, commonly used during the colonial period, is similarly considered offensive, whereas noir (literally, "black") is the standard word, with the Anglicism black being a common slang term.

Interestingly, in some places these words refer to people with an only slightly darker appearance than those native to Northern Europe, i.e. people who might be said to have a typically Mediterranean or Southern European appearance without any facial or hair-texture characteristics associated with black people.

Forms ultimately derived from Latin niger have been borrowed into various non-Romance languages, and may be used to refer to people without negative connotation — Russian негр (negr) is one such example. The Hungarian néger referred to black Africans without any negative connotations until the 1990s when its meaning changed under English influence. The word ******, typically with the same spelling and more or less similar pronunciation, also appears as a loanword in languages other than English and has the same racist connotations as the English word. In Nazi propaganda, the German compound ******jazz was used as a derogatory term for jazz music, which Nazi ideology held was a "degenerate" form of music. In Yiddish, "shvartzer", meaning 'black' is considered offensive while "neger" is the standard word.

The word can be confused with the Mandarin Chinese word 那个 "nèigè", which means "that", as well as being in pauses much like "ermm" or "ummm" in English.


Non-human uses
In the past, ****** was sometimes used as a synonym for "defect." For example, the May 1886 issue of Scientific American, page 308 said, "The consequence of neglect might be that what the workmen call ‘a ******’ would get into the armature, and burn it so as to destroy its service."

The term ****** was used in lumber mills until the mid-point of the 20th century. It refers to a device that turns a log while it is being stripped of its bark. This may be an off-hand reference to the prejudicial use of the word, as until the machine was invented, this was considered a job too dangerous for anyone other than a black man.

It is also used to describe something undesirable or bad. In rapper Ice Cube's first album; "Amerikkka's Most Wanted", he said "Paybacks a muthafuckin' ******".

In his album Loyal to the Game, rapper 2pac uses nigga as an acrynom in the title of his song N.I.G.G.A which stands for Never Ignorant about Gettin' Goals Accomplished.


Literary uses
****** has a long history of controversy in literature. Carl Van Vechten, a white photographer and writer famous as a supporter of the Harlem Renaissance, provoked debate and some protest from the African American community by titling his 1926 novel ****** Heaven. The controversy centered on the use of the word in the title and fueled the sales of the hit novel. Of the controversy, Langston Hughes wrote:

No book could possibly be as bad as ****** Heaven has been painted. And no book has ever been better advertised by those who wished to damn it. Because it was declared obscene, everybody wanted to read it, and I'll venture to say that more Negroes bought it than ever purchased a book by a Negro author. Then, as now, the use of the word "******" by a white was a flashpoint for debates about the relationship between Black culture and its White patrons.
The famous controversy over Mark Twain's novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1885), a classic frequently taught in American schools, revolves largely around the novel's 215 uses of the word, often referring to Jim, Huck's raft mate.[11][12] Advocates of the book point out that use of the word is not intended to spread racist stereotypes but simply reflects the situation at the time of writing, and that Jim is clearly depicted as a sympathetic character.

****** in the Window is a book written by a young black girl who describes the world from her window.[13]

Slaves often pandered to racist assumptions by using the word ****** to their advantage in the self-deprecatory artifice of Tomming.[14] Implicit was an unspoken reminder that a presumably inferior person or subhuman could not reasonably be held responsible for work performed incorrectly, a fire in the kitchen, or any similar offense. It was a means of deflecting responsibility in the hope of escaping the wrath of an overseer or master. Its use as a self-referential term was also a way to avoid suspicion and put whites at ease. A slave who referred to himself or another black as a "******" presumably accepted his subordinate role and posed no threat to white authority.


Original title of And Then There Were None by Agatha ChristieAn example of this historical use in American literature occurs in Edgar Allan Poe's short story "The Gold-Bug" (1843). The narrator and a white character in the story use negro to refer to a black servant, Jupiter, while Jupiter himself uses ******.[15][16]

Ian Fleming makes use of the term in his novel Live and Let Die. One of the chapters is called "****** Heaven" and two of the main characters, James Bond and Felix Leiter, make regular use of the word.

Bram Stoker, the Irish author best known for Dracula, makes use of the word 46 times in his 1911 novel, The Lair of the White Worm. Edgar Caswall's African servant, Oolanga, is often referred to as a "******" throughout the book.[17]

Agatha Christie's novel And Then There Were None, also known as Ten Little Indians, originally appeared as Ten Little *******. Among the classic novels of Joseph Conrad (famous for his use of the word in Heart of Darkness) is The ****** of the 'Narcissus' (1897).

Harper Lee's 1960 novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, also uses the term ****** throughout showing the widespread use during the 1930s.

Flannery O'Connor wrote a short story named "The Artificial ******", a term one of the characters uses when he sees a lawn jockey.

Other examples of literary usage in the United Kingdom during the late 19th and early 20th centuries suggest a more neutral usage of the term, which can cause a problem when reading such books today when the word has such an offensive meaning.

The Gilbert and Sullivan operetta The Mikado uses the word ****** twice. The executioner Ko-ko, in his song "I have a little list", sings of killing "the ****** serenader and the others of his race" (this is generally understood to mean white performers performing minstrel songs in blackface, a popular Victorian entertainment). The Mikado, in his song “Let the Punishment fit the Crime”, sings of having overly-made-up society ladies “Blacked like a ******/With permanent walnut juice”. Both lyrics are frequently changed in performance nowadays.[18]

The Scarlet Pimpernel contains a black character referred to casually as a “******”, in a way which suggests no serious insult is intended.

In one John Buchan novel the hero goes into a night club in the early 1920s, where “a rather good ****** band” is playing.

Ronald Firbank's 1925 novel about the failed attempts of a family of blacks to enter high society in the capital of a West Indian nation was entitled Prancing ******. The title was recommended to him as a publicity-getter by Van Vechten.

P.G. Wodehouse's Thank You, Jeeves has Bertie Wooster mention that he would like to practice the banjo with a "troupe of ****** minstrels".

The Reverend W. V. Awdry's story Henry's Sneeze (part of The Railway Series of stories that is most known for Thomas the Tank Engine) originally described some soot-covered boys as being "as black as *******". After complaints were made in 1972, the description was changed to "as black as soot".

It has been suggested that the USA usage became more prevalent in the UK during and after the Second World War.

War Comes to Willy Freeman by James Collier and Christopher Collier (ISBN 0-440-49504-0) mentions the word ****** nineteen times. Current readers complain as this use of the word is unnecessary and, in the 18th century context of the story, is not historically correct.

Rudyard Kipling's Just So Story "How the Leopard Got His Spots" tells of how an Ethiopian and a leopard, who are originally sand-colored, decide to paint themselves for camouflage when hunting in dense tropical forest. The story originally included a scene in which the leopard, who now has spots, asks the Ethiopian why he doesn't want spots as well. The Ethiopian's original reply, "Oh, plain black's best for a ******", has been changed in many modern editions to read, "Oh, plain black's best for me."

Rudyard Kipling uses the word in his "A Counting-Out Song", from Land and Sea Tales for Scouts and Guides, (1923). The rhyme reads "Eenie Meenie Mainee, Mo! Catch a ****** by the toe!"

Ernest Hemingway uses the term ambiguously in "The Sun Also Rises" (1926)

'Finally we went up to Montmartre. Inside Zelli's it was crowded, smoky, and noisy. The music hit you as you went in. Brett and I danced. It was so crowded we could barely move. The ****** drummer waved at Brett. We were caught in the jam, dancing in one place in front of him. "Hahre you?" "Great." "Thaats good." He was all teeth and lips. "He's a great friend of mine," Brett said. "Damn good drummer."'

It's also used to reference a boxer in an incident recounted by one of the minor characters in the book.


Popular culture
At one time, the word was used freely in branding and packaging of consumer commodities in the U.S. and the United Kingdom. There were brands such as ****** Hair Tobacco, ******head Oysters, and other canned goods. Brazil nuts were referred to as "****** toes". As times changed, so did labeling practices. The tobacco brand became "Bigger Hare" and the canned goods brand became "Negro Head". Eventually, such names disappeared from the Western marketplace altogether.[19][20]

In other parts of the world, however, this is not the case. As recently as 2007, a black household in Canada took delivery of a chocolate-brown leather sofa manufactured in China. To their surprise and dismay, the label on the sofa listed the item's color as "****** Brown."[21] In fact, "******" remains common in China today as a descriptor of a dark shade of brown. The China-based Nanhai De Xing Leather Shoes Habiliment Co., Ltd.'s online store describes a leather men's boot: "this product is comfortable for wearing, it looks very simple and artistic. Size: 39#-46# Color: ******-brown."[22]

Additionally, the word "******" has appeared in many films (perhaps most famously in Blazing Saddles, which used it to ridicule racism itself), television shows and songs.


Names of places and things
Because the word was used freely for many years, there are many official place-names containing the word ******. Examples include ****** Bill Canyon, ****** Hollow, and ******town Marsh. In 1967, the United States Board on Geographic Names changed the word ****** to Negro in 143 specific place names, although this did not always eradicate common use of the word in reference to such places.

One specific example is that of ****** Head Mountain, located just outside of Burnet, Texas. For decades, a particular hillock was referred to as such due to the forestation at the peak resembling a black man's hairstyle of the times. It became a popular spot for the predominantly white local high school students to show their spirit by holding pep rallies and post-game parties, and even during the start of the Civil Rights Movement news services continued to refer to the hillock as "****** Head" with almost no reported complaints from either side of the rights struggle. In 1966, First Lady Lady Bird Johnson, as part of her beautification efforts at the time, denounced the name and asked both the U.S. Board on Geographic Names and the U.S. Forest Service to take immediate steps to change the name to something more acceptable to reflect changing views. The name was officially changed to "Colored Mountain" in 1968, and while both maps and road signs were replaced with ones bearing the new name, local inhabitants still refer to the location by its original name. There was also a "Dead ****** Creek" in central Texas that changed its name to "Dead Negro Creek".

"****** Nate Grade" in Temecula, California was named after former slave and early settler Nate Harrison, but was changed in 1955 due to a request by the NAACP and renamed to Nate Harrison Grade.[23] Many other place names in California use the word as well.[24][25][26][27]

The Pacific Northwest region of the USA has many uses of the word.[28][29][30][31]

A point on the Lower Mississippi River was known well into the middle and late 20th century as Free ****** Point, or Free****** Point. A later variation was Free Negro Point, but the location, in West Baton Rouge Parish, is now known as Wilkinson Point.[32] The geographic coordinates are 30.5126893° N 91.2126084° W.

A jagged rock formation resembling a silhouetted human face protruding from a cliff over highway 421 north of Pennington Gap, Virginia was called "****** Head Rock" until the 1970s, when the name was changed to "Great Stone Face." Checks issued by a local bank in the 1940s bore an illustration of the rock accompanied by the original name.

The British term for a black iron marine bollard, made from an old cannon partially buried muzzle upward with a slightly oversize black cannonball covering the hole, was "******head". Sailors also once called an isolated coral head a ******head. The latter are notorious as navigation hazards.

Many varieties of flora and fauna commonly are still referred to by terms which include the word. The ******-head cactus, which is native to Arizona, is round, the size of a cabbage, and covered with large, crooked thorns. The colloquial name for echinacea, or coneflower, is, variously, "Kansas ******head" or "wild ******head". The "******head termite"(Nasutitermes graveolus)[33] is native to Australia.

Around the world, the names of several varieties of foods do, or did, include the words. Brazil nuts are often referred to as "****** toes". An Irish colloquialism described prunes as "******'s knackers". A popular chocolate snack in Belgium is widely known as Negerinnetetten (negress's tits), however it is sold under the trademark Melo-cakes. Another chocolate treat in Holland was until recently called Negerzoenen (Negro kisses), but is now called Buys Zoenen (Buys Kisses) after the vendor's name. In Sweden, the traditional treat Negerbollar (Negro balls) is now more commonly referred to as Chocolate-, Oat- or Coco-balls.

In April 2003, there was a stir in Australia over the naming of part of a stadium in Toowoomba, "E.S. ****** Brown Stand". "****** Brown" was the nickname of Toowoomba's first international rugby player. Edward Stanley Brown used the shoe polish brand "****** Brown". The stand was named in the 1960s. As in the United States some decades ago, the word was used casually by whites, with little thought. Brown himself was happy with the nickname, and in fact it is written on his tombstone. A growing black consciousness among Australia's aboriginal population, however, has led to the term being considered increasingly offensive, particularly when uttered by whites.

Australian activist Stephen Hagan took the responsible local council to court over the use of the word. Hagan lost the court case at the district and state level, and the High Court ruled that the matter was beyond federal jurisdiction. The federal government cited the High Court ruling on a lack of federal jurisdiction as its legal justification for continued inaction. (Hagan also has tried changing other supposed racial slurs such as the Coon brand of cheese.)

General John Pershing is remembered by the nickname "Black Jack", which was coined by World War I reporters who could not print his actual nickname, "****** Jack".[34]


Avoiding offense
This section overlaps with other sections; it should be combined with the rest of the article.
Please post any comments on this issue on the talk page.


"The N-Word"
The euphemism "the N-word" became a part of the American lexicon during the racially polarizing trial of O.J. Simpson, a retired football player charged with — and ultimately acquitted of — a widely publicized double murder. One of the prosecution's key witnesses was Los Angeles police detective Mark Fuhrman, who initially denied using racial slurs but whose prolific and derogatory use of it on a tape recording brought his credibility into question. The recordings were from a session in 1985 that Fuhrman had with Laura McKinney, an aspiring screenwriter working on a screenplay about women in the police force. According to Fuhrman, he was using the word as part of his "bad-cop" persona.

Members of the press reporting on and discussing Fuhrman's testimony began using the term "the N-word" instead of repeating the actual word, presumably as a way to avoid offending audiences and advertisers.


Near-homophones
The word niger is Latin for "black" and occurs in many Latin scientific terms and names. (See Niger for other meanings such as the country in Africa.) Niger is the root for some English words which are near homophones of ******. Some sellers of niger seed, a small black seed commonly used as wild bird feed, have begun to sell it under the name Nyjer seed, in part to avoid the common mispronunciation. Also, the Classical Latin pronunciation /ˈnigeɾ/ is close to the English /ˈnɪ.gə(ɹ)/. The situation is not the same with Church Latin pronunciation, /ˈnidʒeɾ/.

Nigra, which is the way Negro is pronounced by some people in the American South, was considered by some to be a more polite way to refer to a black person. Because of its similarity to "******," however, it is generally regarded as unacceptable. [citation needed]

The words niggardly ("miserly") and s****** ("to laugh derisively") do not refer either to black people or to characteristics or behavior attributed to black people, nor do they have any etymological connection with the word. Niggard (a miserly person) is related to Old Norse nig, "stingy," and the verb niggle is most likely derived from the Old Norse verb nigla -- "to chew, gnaw, or potter at". As such words are easily mistaken for "******," their use is frowned upon by some and sometimes seen as offensive. David Howard, a white city official in Washington, D.C., resigned from his job in January 1999, when he used niggardly in a fiscal sense while talking with black colleagues, who took offense at his use of the word. After reviewing the incident, Washington mayor Anthony Williams offered Howard his job back. Howard declined that position but accepted another position in the mayor's administration.[35]

The word wigger is a portmanteau combining the words white and ****** generally used to describe a young, white individual who adopts certain aspects of hip hop,thug, or gangster culture.

A colloquialism in the British music industry for a freeloader is the word "ligger" (one who seeks to attend concerts and music industry events without paying). The word derives from another colloquialism lig (a gig or event) and variations thereof "to go ligging" (to go to a series of events.) The term "ligger" evolved as a derivative of the other words rooted in the word "lig" and not as a variant of "******", but the fact that it is a near homophone of the word "******" has led to it being less used.[citation needed]


Revisionist usage in Britain
"******" was famously the name of a Black Labrador[36] belonging to the RAF Second World War hero Wing Commander Guy Gibson. The dog died before the 617 Squadron's 1943 raid on the Ruhr dams (the "Dam Busters raid"), and "******" was adopted as the radio code word signaling the destruction of the Möhne dam. The British television broadcaster ITV now tries to reduce offence by editing out some scenes including the dog when it broadcasts the film Dam Busters. This has been condemned by some as "revisionist", although the edited version apparently produced fewer complaints than a previous uncensored broadcast. However, this scene probably has been viewed more times than any other part of the movie. It was watched by the character Pink (Bob Geldof) in the hotel-room sequence in the Pink Floyd film The Wall, during which the dialogue relevant to the dog's death is screened.


Nigga
Main article: Nigga
The word nigga as variant of ****** has been used self-referentially by many in the African American community, like a pronoun to refer to a black man; see anaphora. [37] With the rise in popularity of rap and hip-hop, the term has become more widely used among some black youth and among some non-blacks as well. This neo revisionist usage, particularly among non-blacks, has been the source of considerable controversy. In such applications, the word often is spelled nigga — as it is pronounced in African American Vernacular English and in Southern American English.

[NuttyJim]

Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW), is an independent German company and manufacturer of automobiles and motorcycles. BMW is the parent company of the MINI and Rolls-Royce car brands. It is also one of the leading German car manufacturers.

BMW was officially founded as a public company in 1922, but traces its origins to the pioneering days of German aviation all the way back to 1913. Two of these pioneering men, Karl Rapp and Gustav Otto, are credited by BMW as the "founding fathers". However, BMW owes its actual founding by three men- Josef Popp, Max Friz, and Camillo Castiglioni. These men brought BMW through many turbulent times in the company's early life, as well as taking the company public in 1922 to form BMW AG.

Advertisement for BMW GmbH in 1917Beginning with aircraft engines, BMW AG produced a variety of products in its early years, eventually moving to motorcycle production in 1923 and automobiles in 1929. The circular blue and white BMW logo, which has not changed throughout the company's history, does not in fact symbolize a spinning propeller. The BMW Trademark was in fact derived directly from the logo of the predecessor company Rapp Motorenwerke.


[edit] Motorcycles
Main article: BMW motorcycles

R32: the first BMW motorcycleBMW started building motorcycle engines and then motorcycles after WWI. Their first notable motorcycle, the "R32" came in 1923. These had a "boxer twin" engine, in which an air-cooled cylinder protrudes into the air-fllow from each side of the machine. Other than a few post-war singles (basically to the same pattern), all their motorcycles had used this distinctive, unusual (but well-regarded) layout until the early 1980s. Many BMWs are still produced to this pattern, which is designated the "R series".

During WWII BMW produced the BMW R75 motorcycle with a sidecar attached. Unusually, the sidecar's wheel was also driven. Combined with a lockable differential, this made the vehicle very capable off-road, an equivalent in many ways to the Jeep.

In 1983 came the "K Series" (affectionately known as "The Flying Brick"), still shaft drive but now water cooled and with either 3 or 4 cylinders mounted in a straight line from front to back. Shortly after, BMW also started making the chain-driven F and G series with single and parallel twin Rotax engines.

BMW motorcycles have a range of models that give an off-road, sporty or relaxed and comfortable ride.

In the early 1990s, BMW updated the airhead boxer engine which became known as the Oilhead. In 2002, the Oilhead engine had two spark plugs per cylinder. In 2004 it added a built-in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1170 cc and enhanced performance to 100 hp (75 kW) for the R1200GS, compared to 85 hp (63 kW) of the previous R1150GS. More powerful variants of the oilhead and hexhead engines are available in the R1100S and R1200S, producing 98 hp (73 kW) and 122 hp (91 kW), respectively.


K1200GTIn 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It is both powerful (the engine is a 167 hp (125 kW) unit derived from the company's work with the Williams F1 team) and significantly lighter than previous K models. It was BMW's latest attempt to keep up with the pace of development of sports machines from the likes of Honda, Kawasaki, Yamaha, and Suzuki. Innovations include a unique electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack-type front fork BMW calls Duolever.

BMW was one of the earliest manufacturers to offer anti-lock brakes on production motorcycles starting in the late 1980s. The generation of anti-lock brakes available on the 2006 and later BMW motorcycles pave the way for the introduction of sophisticated electronic stability control, or anti-skid technology - a first for production motorcycles - later in the 2007 model year.

BMW has always been an innovator in motorcycle suspension design, taking up telescopic front suspension long before most other manufacturers. Then, when other makers caught up, they switched to Earles Forke, front suspension by swinging fork (1955 to 1969). Most modern BMWs are truly rear swingarm, single sided at the back (cf the regular swinging fork usually, and wrongly, called swinging arm).

Some BMWs started using yet another trademark front suspension design, the Telelever, in the early 1990s. Like the Earles Fork, the Telelever largely obviates dive under braking.


[edit] Motorcycle Clubs
Fanfare of the BMW motorcycle has invoked the interest in clubs, or groups of people who share the same passion for their Bavarian bikes. The two largest BMW motorcycle clubs in the world are headquartered in the United States. They are the BMW Riders Association (BMW RA) and the BMW Motorcycle Owners of America (BMW MOA).


[edit] Automobiles

[edit] Current
The current BMW model lineup is split into what is referred to as "Series", traditionally identified by a single digit - e.g. the 3 Series.

In 2004 BMW announced plans to make odd-numbered series saloon/sedan and estate/wagon models (BMW calls its estates/wagons Touring models), while even-numbered series will be two-door coupés and cabriolets. This convention started informally in 1976 with the introduction of the 6 Series and later continued in 1989 with the 8 Series, but died off when the latter was discontinued in 1999. This practice was revived as the Z4 replaced the aging Z3 roadster in 2003 and continues as the new 6 Series augments the existing BMW 5 Series.


2007 1 Series 5 door with the 1 Series facelift
[edit] 1 Series
Main article: BMW 1 Series
The 1 Series was launched in Fall 2004 and a 3-Door that was launched in July 2007 on the BMW International website. Because it is the only rear wheel drive vehicle in its class, it is considered the heir apparent to the original 2002 sport sedan from the 1960s. A Coupé has been announced for late 2007, and there are concepts for a convertible. U.S. introduction for the 1 series is expected in MY 2008 as a coupé and convertible, in the 128i and the 135i. The 135i is slated to receive the 300 horsepower (220 kW) twin turbo 6 cylinder engine from the 3 series. The 1 series pricing fits neatly between MINI and the current E90 3-series.


[edit] 3 Series
Main article: BMW 3 Series
The BMW 3 Series is a compact executive car manufactured since MY 1975. The E90 is the 5th generation 3 series. Available from MY 2006 to present, it is offered as the sport sedan(E90), sport wagon(E91), sport coupe(E92), and sport coupe convertible(E93). The E90 series is completely re-engineered from the E46, including changes to motor choices, transmission, the passenger compartment comfort, suspension technology, as well as a host of High-Tech features and options.

The 3 series is not only one of BMW's most important models, it also accounts for a majority of worldwide sales.

2007 3-Series Convertible



2007 3-Series Coupe



2006 3-Series Touring



BMW E46 Generation with ZHP Performance Package






[edit] 5 Series
Main article: BMW 5 Series
A mid-size luxury car / executive car. For MY 2008, BMW has revised the 5 series with a slightly redesigned interior, subtle exterior details, and new motor options. The motors offered are BMW's N52 and N54 inline 6-cylinder motors, as well as diesel and V8 options.

The BMW 5 series has been one of BMW's "experimenal" cars, in which they can explore newer ideas. They have inserted new technologies and new ideas into this model that may have seemed radical for its time. One such example of this "testing" approach is the new headlight design. These types of changes to the 5 Series have allowed BMW to assess the reaction of consumers to their new designs before expanding the changes to other model series. Consequently, it has at times led people to question BMW's approach to design.

The M5 is the motorsport division's version of the 5 Series. The new M5 (built on the E60 5 series chassis) is powered by a F1-inspired V10 engine, producing 507 hp (378 kW) and is mated with a 7-speed Sequential Manual Gearbox (SMG) transmission, which is capable of a delimited top speed of about 330 km/h (production variants are restricted to 250 km/h, or 155 mph). BMW has also recently added a 6-speed manual transmission for newer 2007 models. The colour palette differs from its more modest 5 Series siblings.
2005 5 Series with M Sport Package



2007 5-Series Touring with M Sport Package



2007 M5



E39 BMW M5 (previous generation)






[edit] 6 Series
Main article: BMW 6 Series
The 6 Series is BMW's grand touring luxury sport coupé. Currently available as the 650i in coupé and coupé convertible, the 6 series returned in 2004, after a 15 year absence from BMW's model lineup.

Although many spy photos were seen with the 6-Series having a half-life update, like the 5-Series, BMW released the updated 6-Series in July 2007. It is unknown when the M6 coupe & cabriolet update versions will be released, however both are expected soon.

M6: A high performance version of the 6 Series. Developed by BMW's M Division, it is powered by the same 5.0 L V10 507 hp (378 kW) engine seen in the BMW M5. It is currently available in Europe, North America and Australia.
2004 6 Series Convertible(645i)



6 Series Coupe (650i)



6 Series Convertible (645i)



6 Series Coupe (645i)





BMW 7-Series (current generation, pre-update)
[edit] 7 Series
Main article: BMW 7 Series
BMW's full-size flagship executive sedan. Typically, BMW introduces much of their innovations first in the vaunted 7 series. It has been deemed a "sports car at the helm and a limousine in the rear". Numerous landmark and breakthrough technologies for the entire automotive industry debut on the 7 series. For example, the groundbreaking and controversial iDrive, or the world's first Hydrogen powered production vehicle, have all debuted in the 7 series. The 7-Series Hydrogen, the world’s first luxury performance sedan with hydrogen drive, it runs on the most plentiful element in the world and emits virtually nothing but water vapor. And because the infrastructure for refueling a hydrogen internal combustion engine is not yet complete, the V12 engine also runs on gasoline, enabled via a push button system. Numerous engines power the 7 series worldwide. BMW offers diesel, V8 and V12 motors, as well as the Alpina tuned supercharged V8. Additionally, the 760Li is also made in a bulletproof version.[citation needed]


BMW X3 (current generation, update)
[edit] X3
Main article: BMW X3
BMW's second SUV debuted in 2004 (called SAV or Sports Activity Vehicle by BMW) and is based on the E46 3 Series layout within, but without, it is quite unique. For 2007, the X3 is powered by the N52 inline 6 cylinder engine that debuted with the 2006 E90 3 Series. The X3 is a more functionally oriented vehicle that American buyers seem to prefer over a wagon; it is BMW's answer to the growing crossover segment of the market. It has performed quite well in sales, but in 2007 a face lift was given to the X3, including an X-drive update, suspension adjustments, an engine upgrade, and aesthetics inside and out.

Marketed in Europe as an off-roader, it benefits from an advanced all-wheel drive system. This, combined with its standard "Enhanced DSC" stability control, make the X3 a capable vehicle on and off road.


[edit] X5
Main article: BMW X5

2007 E70 BMW X5The BMW X5 (E53) is a mid-size luxury SUV (SAV) sold by BMW since 2000. It features all-wheel drive and a line of straight-6 and V8 engines. For non-US models there is a 3.0 L diesel engine.

The BMW E70 automobile platform replaced the BMW E53 in November 2006. The E70-based X5 SUV features many new technological advancements including BMW's iDrive system as standard equipment and, for the first time in a BMW, an optional third row seat which has increased the seating capacity in the new X5 to 7 passengers.

The E53 model was rated the by IIHS in 2002 to be the safest vehicle that organization had ever tested.[citation needed] Since then, BMW has applied their craft to the current generation E70 to incorporate innovative "firsts" for the SUV/SAV industry, such as Run Flat Tires, complimentary BMW Assist, and a unique rear framing section to protect 3rd row occupants from injury due to an impact.


[edit] Z4
Main article: BMW Z4
A 2-seater roadster and coupé which succeeded the Z3. From 2006 the Z4 Roadster is available as a 3.0i (3.0 L I6 with 215 hp), a 3.0si available with the new generation 3.0 L I6 with 255 hp (190 kW), a 2.5si with a 2.5 I6 with 218 bhp (163 kW) or a 2.0i with a 150 bhp (112 kW) 2.0 L I4. The Z4 Coupé is available only in the high-performance 3.0si trim powered by the 3.0 L 255 hp (190 kW) I6.

Z4 M The new Z4 M roadster has been released as a Z4 with an E46 M3 motor (3.2 L, 343 hp) and also features the M braking, suspension, and M characteristics. There is also an M coupe model available.
2006 Z4 Roadster



2006 Z4 Coupe



2007 Z4 M Roadster



2006 Z4 M Roadster






[edit] BMW M
Main article: BMW M
BMW M GmbH (previously: BMW Motorsport GmbH) is a subsidiary of German car manufacturer BMW AG established in May 1972 with just eight employees. BMW M, also known as M-Technik or just "M" (for Motorsport) was initially created to facilitate BMW’s racing program, which was very successful in the 1960s and 1970s. The first racing project was BMW’s 3.0 CSL; in the late 1970s the first modified street legal road cars were produced for the contracted racecar drivers as their personal vehicles. By 1988, the number of employees had risen to 400.


[edit] M3

E92 M3 CoupéMain article: BMW M3
Based on the 3 Series Coupe & Convertible, the M3 defined an entirely new market for BMW: a race ready production vehicle. Since its debut, the M3 is heralded in enthusiast circles, in large part due to its unique geometry and award winning powerplants. As a testament to how well received this vehicle is, all retired models have quickly made it to "collector" status.[citation needed] MY2008 marks the first time a Formula 1 inspired V8 will be offered.[citation needed], producing 420 hp (313 kW) that can reach 62 mph (100 km/h) in about 4.5 seconds. The newest version (E92) will be available fall of 2007 in Europe, and second quarter of 2008 for the U.S. in Coupe, Cabrio, and Sedan variants


[edit] M5
Main article: BMW M5
Based on the 5 Series, the M5 is the M division's 500 hp (373 kW) V10-powered version of the E60 5 series which makes 62 mph (100 km/h) in 4.1 seconds,[1] impressive for a 4 door saloon car. The M5 was the first 4-door sedan to be considered a sports car, and is the fastest production sedan ever produced. There is also a modified twin turbo version that can reach 62 mph (100 km/h) in just 3.6 seconds, giving 810 bhp (604 kW) and 733 lp-ft (994 Nm) of torque, with a top speed of 240 mph (386 km/h). However this car is limited to 155 mph (249 km/h).[2]


[edit] M6
Main article: BMW M6
The M6 is the M division's version of the E63. The M6 shares its drivetrain with the M5. The V10 produces 500 horsepower (370 kW) and 383 ft·lbf (519 N·m) of torque. This new engine is mated to a seven-speed SMG transmission.


[edit] Z4 M
Main articles: BMW M Coupe and BMW M Roadster
BMW’s two-seater is powered by the same prize-winning 3.2-liter straight-six M engine also featured in the BMW M3(E46) and the BMW Z4 Roadster. The engine’s performance figures are: 3,246 cc displacement, 343 bhp (256 kW) maximum output at an engine speed of 7,900 rpm, maximum engine speed of 8,000 rpm. No less than 80 per cent of the engine’s maximum torque of 262 ft·lbf (355 N·m) is available at the driver’s request from just 2,000 rpm. Output per liter is 103 bhp (77 kW), giving the Z4 M Coupe a power-to-weight ratio of just 9.9 lb/bhp. Acceleration to 60 mph (100 km/h) comes in 4.8 seconds and top speed is limited electronically to 155 mph (249 km/h).


[edit] Future
Z10: A supercar to succeed the Z8, to be produced in 2008 (Update: The new BMW supercar may in fact be called the Z9, and not the Z10. Update 2: It may even be called the M10 since by late september 2007 BMW Group has registered "M10" as a brand)
BMW V/F3 : An MPV (Sports Tourer) based on the BMW 3-Series/X3 to compete with Mercedes-Benz B-Class. This vehicle could also possibly be the rumoured X1, or called the F3.
BMW V/F5 : A MPV (Grand Sports Tourer) based on the BMW 5-Series/X5 to compete with Mercedes-Benz R-Class. This vehicle could also possibly be called the F5.
BMW Z2 : A Roadster and Coupe positioned under the Z4 as an entry level sports car, more than likely powered by a 4 cylinder engine. This model may come out in 2009, however it is still an unconfirmed rumour.
BMW F01/F02 7-Series : The F01 and F02 will be the replacement for the 7-Series for either 2008 or 2009. The F02 is the longer wheelbase version. In addition there will be a "Baby Roller" or mini Rolls Royce that will be under 200,000 that will compete with the Bentley Continental and S65 AMG.
BMW X6: A coupe-based SUV. The X6 has been spotted testing. It should come out Mid-2008.
BMW 8-Series: Unrelated to the original; a four-door grand tourer car to be based on the BMW CS Concept, competing against Mercedes-Benz CLS Class.[3]
BMW 1 Series (in America)- BMW has created an affordable 1 Series, which is inspired by the 2002 models. The 128i and 135i, featuring BMW's twin-turbocharged six cylinder engine will be released in America in the Spring of 2008. Later in 2008, the convertible version will be on lots across America.

[edit] Prototypes

BMW CS Concept1990 BMW M8 Prototype A prototype designed as a "Ferrari killer". It was never put into production because of the lack of a market for such a car.
1999 Z9: a concept car designed by Adrian van Hooydonk marked a departure from BMW's traditional conservative style, and has caused some controversy among BMW enthusiasts.
BMW 750hL showcased at Expo 2000 at the BMW World exhibit. As one of the world's first autos to use an engine propelled by liquid hydrogen, the 750hL produces 2 by products: electricity and water. There are as of March 2007, 100 750hL vehicles in the USA for testing purposes.See the BMW website.
2001 xCoupe
2007 BMW CS Concept[1] - BMW has expressed interest in producing the vehicle under the 8 Series name.

[edit] Out of production
M1: a 1970s mid-engine sports car, designed in conjunction with Lamborghini. As Lamborghini went into bankruptcy the production was shifted to the German Karmanwerke.
Z3: a 2-seater roadster.
M coupé and roadster: high-performance hard-top and soft-top versions of the Z3, very popular among enthusiasts. The Z3 was first shown on the big screen in the James Bond film GoldenEye, marking the first time Pierce Brosnan played Bond and the first time the MI6 agent's gadget-laden car wasn't British.
8 Series: a fast, high-technology coupé of the 1990s. Unconfirmed rumors suggest that this may be revived, see BMW CS Concept, to compete against the globally acclaimed Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class.
Z1: a late 1980s two-seater with innovative modular construction; only 8,000 were made. Best known for the feature of the vertically sliding doors.
Z8: a roadster with design based on the classic 507 roadster from the 1950s. Debuted in the James Bond film The World Is Not Enough, marking the last time Bond would drive a BMW. Only 5000 were built, the last 500 being a special edition built by Alpina but sold directly from BMW. This exciting halo car was built on an aluminium space frame design.

[edit] Classics

BMW 319/1 – built in 1935
1936 BMW Model 319 4-Window Cabriolet
1958 BMW Model 507 RoadsterBMW made many cars over the years which have had great impact on the world of motoring.

3.0 CSL
M1
M3
M5
M6 (e24) First production line M car. Supercoupe capable of over 150 mph (241 km/h)
M Roadster
Dixi, 3/20, 303, 309, 315, 319, 320, 321, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 335
Isetta, 600, 700
501, 502, 503, 507
3200 CS, 2000 CS
New Sixes (2500/2800/Bavaria/2.5/2.8/3.0/3.3): Predecessor to today's 7 Series
New Class (1500/1502/1600/1800/1802/2000/2002): Predecessor to the 3 Series

[edit] Series Generations
Internally, BMW associates an "e-code" for each generation of a series ("E" stands for Entwicklung, German for development or evolution). These "chassis codes" only change to signify a major redesign of a series, or the introduction of a new series. BMW AG reported in September 2006 that BMW would switch to the letter "F" for their future models, beginning with the F01 7 Series replacement.

BMW E3 — (1968–1977)
2.5, 2.8, 3.0, 3.3 "New Six" sedans

BMW E9 — (1969–1975) 2800CS, 3.0CS, 3.0CSL "New Six" coupés
BMW E12 — (1974–1981) 5 Series
BMW E21 — (1976–1983) 3 Series
BMW E23 — (1977–1986) 7 Series
BMW E24 — (1976–1989) 6 Series
BMW E26 — (1978–1981) M1
BMW E28 — (1981–1987) 5 Series
BMW E30 — (1984–1991) 3 Series (1982-1983 E30 sold in Europe)
BMW E31 — (1989–1997) 8 Series
BMW E32 — (1986–1994) 7 Series
BMW E34 — (1988–1995) 5 Series
BMW E36 — (1992–1999) 3 Series
BMW E36/5 — (1995–1998) 3 Series Compact (US market known as "318ti")
BMW E36/7 — (1996-2002) Z3 Series Roadster
BMW E36/8 — (1998-2002) Z3 Series Coupé
BMW E38 — (1994–2001) 7 Series
BMW E39 — (1995–2003) 5 Series
BMW E46/5 — (2000–2004) 3 Series Compact
BMW E46/4 — (1998–2005) 3 Series Sedan
BMW E46/3 — (1999–2005) 3 Series Touring/Sports Wagon
BMW E46/2 — (1999–2006) 3 Series Coupé
BMW E46/C — (1999–2006) 3 Series Convertible
BMW E52 — (2000–2003) Z8
BMW E53 — (2000–2006) X5
BMW E60 — (2004–present) 5 Series
BMW E61 — (2004–2007) 5 Series Touring/Sports Wagon
BMW E63 — (2004–present) 6 Series coupé
BMW E64 — (2004–present) 6 Series convertible
BMW E65 — (2002–2007) 7 Series short wheelbase
BMW E66 — (2002–2007) 7 Series long wheelbase
BMW E67 — (2002–2007) 7 Series Protection
BMW E70 — (2007-present) X5
BMW E71 — (2008) X6
BMW E72 — (2008) X6 Hybrid
BMW E81 — (2007-present) 1 Series (3-door)
BMW E82 — (2007-present) 1 Series Coupé
BMW E82/2 — (2010) Z2
BMW E83 — (2004–present) X3
BMW E85 — (2003–present) Z4
BMW E86 — (2006–present) Z4 Coupé
BMW E87 — (2004–present) 1 Series (5-door)
BMW E88 — (2008) 1 Series Convertible
BMW E89 — (2009) Z4 roadster
BMW E90 — (2005–present) 3 Series
BMW E91 — (2005–present) 3 Series Touring/Sports Wagon
BMW E92 — (2006–present) 3 Series Coupé
BMW E93 — (2007–present) 3 Series Convertible
BMW E99 — (2009) V5 Progressive Activity Sedan (PAS)
BMW F01 — (2008) 7 Series
BMW F02 — (2009) 7 Series long wheelbase
BMW F03 — (2008) 7 Series Protection
BMW F04 — (2009) 8 Series Light Base
BMW F10 — (2010) 5 Series
BMW F11 — (2012) 5 Series Touring/Sports Wagon
BMW F12 — (2011) 6 Series Coupé
BMW F13 — (2011) 6 Series Convertible
BMW F25 — (2011) X3

[edit] Clubs
The BMW Car Club of America is an organization of BMW enthusiasts with chapters throughout the United States. The club runs a myriad of events, generally open to the public, to enjoy BMW vehicles in all their forms.


[edit] Motorsport
Main article: BMW Motorsport

BMW Sauber F1 Team Logo.
BMW first entered Formula One as a fully-fledged team in 2006.BMW has been engaged in motorsport activities since the dawn of the first BMW motorcycle. BMW has competed and won many of the most coveted and prestigious races and motoring events.


[edit] Sponsoring
Formula BMW - A Junior racing Formula category.
Kumho BMW Championship - A BMW-exclusive championship run in the United Kingdom.

[edit] Formula car
Formula One - BMW won the 19 grand prixs as an engine builder and did not win as a team/constructor until 2006
BMW Sauber F1 Team - current BMW works Formula One team
WilliamsF1 - former Formula One partner, and designer of BMW's Le Mans winning sports car
Brabham - Former Formula One partner, winning the Drivers Championship in 1983
Arrows, used BMW engines from 1984 to 1986

[edit] Sports car
Le Mans 24 Hours - BMW won Le Mans in 1999 with the BMW V12 LMR designed by Williams Grand Prix Engineering. Also the Kokusai Kaihatsu Racing team won the 1995 24 Hours of Le Mans in a McLaren F1 GTR race car.
Nürburgring - BMW won the 24 Hours Nürburgring 18 times and the 1000km Nürburgring 2 times (1976 and 1981).
24 Hours of Daytona - BMW won 1 time (1976)
Spa 24 Hours - BMW won 21 times
McLaren F1 - Successful mid-1990s GT racing car with a BMW designed engine. It won BPR Global GT Series in 1995 and 1996 and the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1995.

[edit] Touring car
BMW has a long and very successful history in this category, touring car racing.

European Touring Car Championship (ETCC) - Since 1968, BMW won 24 drivers' championships along with several manufacturers' and teams' titles.
World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) - BMW won all drivers' championship at present and two manufacturers' titles (1987, 2005 and 2006).
DTM (Deutsche Tourenwagen Meisterschaft) won the drivers' championshiops:
1988: Roberto Ravaglia, BMW M3
1987: Winfried Vogt, BMW M3
1983: Dieter Quester, BMW 635 CSI
1982: Umberto Grano, Helmut Kelleners, BMW 528i
1981: Umberto Grano, Helmut Kelleners, BMW 635 CSI
1980: Siegfried Müller Jr., Helmut Kelleners, BMW 320i
1979: Carlo Facetti, Martino Finotto, BMW 3.0 CSL
1978: Umberto Grano, BMW 3.0 CSL
1977: Dieter Quester, BMW 3.0 CSL
1976: Pierre Dieudonné, Jean Xhenceval, BMW 3.0 CSL
1975: Siegfried Müller, Alain Peltier, BMW 3.0 CSL
British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) - BMW won the drivers' championship in 1988, 1991, 1992 and 1993 and manufacturers' championship in 1991 and 1993.
Japanese Touring Car Championship (JTCC) - BMW (Schnitzer) flied from Europe to Japan, competed in the years and won the championship in 1995
Mille Miglia - BMW won Mille Miglia in 1940 in with a 328 Touring Coupé. Previously in 1938 the 328 sport car also obtained a class victory.

[edit] Rally
RAC Rally - The 328 sport car won this event in 1939.
Paris Dakar Rally - BMW motorcycles have won this event 6 times.

[edit] Culture
The term "beemer" started as an acronym for the abbreviation "BMW," adapted from the early-20th century British pronunciation of BSA (as "beeser" or "beezer"), whose motorcycles were often racing BMWs. Over time, the term became closely associated with BMW motorcycles.

In the United States, the term "bimmer" was later coined to refer (exclusively) to BMW automobiles. As such, use of the word "beemer" to refer to a BMW automobile is frowned upon by some BMW enthusiasts,[4] because it is the term used for motorcycles. Although the distinction is completely arbitrary, to this day, the media, movies, and most people still use the term "beemer" to refer to the automobiles.

The initials BMW are pronounced "bay emm vay" in German. The model series are referred to as "Dreier" ("Three-er" for 3 series), "Fünfer" ("Five-er" for the 5 series), "Sechser" ("Six-er" for the 6 series), "Siebener" ("Seven-er" for the 7 series).


[edit] Nomenclature
BMWs follow a certain nomenclature in the naming many of their vehicles; a 3 digit number is followed by 1 or 2 letters. The first number is the series number. The next two numbers is traditionally the engine displacement in liters multiplied by 10.

The system of letters is as follows:

d = diesel
i = fuel-injected
x = all wheel drive xDrive
L = long wheel base
C = coupe
T = touring (wagon/estate)
t = hatchback
g = biogas
s = sport package
For example, a BMW 760Li is a fuel-injected 7 Series with a long wheel base and 6.0 litres of displacement.

However, there are exceptions. The 2007 BMW 328i is a 3 Series that has a 3.0 liter engine. The 2007 BMW 335i has that same 3.0 liter engine, however it is twin-turbocharged and not identified in the nomenclature.

The 'M' - for Motorsport - Series has a very simple nomenclature: M3, M5, M6, etc. It identifies the high-performance 'M' version of a particular series. For example, the M6 is the highest performing vehicle in the 6 Series lineup. Although 'M' cars should be separated into their respective series platforms, it is very common to see 'M' cars grouped together as its own series.

The 'Z' identifies a BMW two seater roadster. For example the Z1, Z3 and Z4. M varients of Z models have the M as a suffix, depending on country of sale. (e.g. 'Z4 M')

When the 'X' supersedes the series number (e.g. X3 and X5), this nomenclature refers to the Sports Activity Vehicle (SAV) lineup.

Also, Station-wagons/Estates are traditionally given the "Touring" or "Sport Wagon" tagline, depending on country of sale.


[edit] Community

BMW logo sign in DüsseldorfBMW has always had a very tight and loyal community following. In the summer of 2001, BMW even went as far as starting the BMW Films website, showcasing some sporty models being driven to extremes. These videos are very popular within the enthusiast community and have opened the eyes of many owners looking for a sporty/fun car. However, even with all this success, on October 21st, 2005, the BMW Films were taken offline.

Every year since 1999, BMW enthusiasts have met up in Santa Barbara, CA to attend Bimmerfest. Perhaps one of the largest brand-specific gatherings in the U.S. Over 3000 people attended in 2006, and there were over 1000 cars present. In 2007, the event was held on May 5.


[edit] Related companies
Automobilwerk Eisenach
Isetta
Glas
Rolls-Royce Motor Cars Limited
Rover: briefly owned by BMW, which retained the Mini after selling off the rest of the company (see MG Rover Group).
Land Rover: sold to Ford; the current Range Rover was developed mostly by BMW during their ownership of the company and until recently was powered by their 4.4 L V8 petrol (gasoline) engine and continues to use the BMW 3.0 L I6 diesel engine
MINI: a small hatchback; inspired by the original Mini, which was the British competitor to the Volkswagen Beetle.
Wiesmann: A company making sporty 2-seater roadsters and coupés for which BMW supplies the engine and transmission components.
DesignworksUSA: Design studio founded in 1972 by Charles W. Pelly, and owned by BMW AG since May 1995. DesignworksUSA has worked on various designs for BMW and other companies, not just automobile. One of the latest designs is computer keyboard and mouse, which were sold by BenQ as x700 Pro keyboard, x730 Pro wireless keyborard and mouse combo, M306 wireless mouse.
Bavaria Wirtschaftsagentur GmbH: BMW Group subsidiary that offers insurance services.
Softlab GmbH: IT consulting and systems integration.
AC Schnitzer: A tuning company specialising in BMW vehicles.
Alpina: A Motor Manufacturer in its own right, who creates vehicles based on BMW cars.
Breyton: A tuning manufacturer specialising in BMW cars.
G-Power: A tuning company specialising in BMW vehicles.
Hartge: A tuning company specialising in BMW, MINI and Range Rover cars.
Hamann Motorsport: A Motor Styling and Tuning Specialist who creates vehicles based on BMW cars.
MK-Motorsport: A tuning company specialising in BMW cars.

[NuttyJim]

The Purple Heart is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those who have been wounded or killed while serving on or after 5 April 1917 with the U.S. military. The National Purple Heart Hall of Honor is located in Newburgh, New York.

A Purple Heart is a heart-shaped medal within a gold border, 1 3⁄8 inches (35 mm) wide, containing a profile of General George Washington. Above the heart appears a shield of the Washington coat of arms (a white shield with two red bars and three red stars in chief) between sprays of green leaves. The reverse consists of a raised bronze heart with the words FOR MILITARY MERIT below the coat of arms and leaves. The ribbon is 1 and 3⁄8 inches (35 mm) wide and consists of the following stripes: 1⁄8 inch (3 mm) white 67101; 1 1⁄8 inches (29 mm) purple 67115; and 1⁄8 inch (3 mm) white 67101. As with other combat medals, multiple awards are denoted by award stars for the Navy, Marine Corps, or Coast Guard, or oak leaf clusters for the Army and Air Force.


[edit] History
The original Purple Heart, designated as the Badge of Military Merit, was established by George Washington—then the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army—by order from his Newburgh, New York headquarters on 7 August 1782.

The Badge of Military Merit was only awarded to three Revolutionary War soldiers and fell into disuse following the War of Independence. Although never abolished, the award of the badge was not proposed again officially until after World War I.

On 10 October 1927, Army Chief of Staff General Charles Pelot Summerall directed that a draft bill be sent to Congress "to revive the Badge of Military Merit". The bill was withdrawn and action on the case ceased on 3 January 1928, but the office of the Adjutant General was instructed to file all materials collected for possible future use.

A number of private interests sought to have the medal reinstituted in the Army. One of these was the board of directors of the Fort Ticonderoga Museum in Ticonderoga, New York.

On 7 January 1931, Summerall’s successor, General Douglas MacArthur, confidentially reopened work on a new design, involving the Washington Commission of Fine Arts. This new design was issued on the bicentennial of George Washington's birth.


Reverse of the Purple HeartElizabeth Will, an Army heraldic specialist in the Office of the Quartermaster General, was named to redesign the newly revived medal, which became known as the Purple Heart. Using general specifications provided to her, Will created the design sketch for the present medal of the Purple Heart. Her obituary, in the 8 February 1975 edition of the Washington Post newspaper, reflects her many contributions to military heraldry.

The Commission of Fine Arts solicited plaster models from three leading sculptors for the medal, selecting that of John R. Sinnock of the Philadelphia Mint in May 1931. By Executive Order of the President of the United States, the Purple Heart was revived on the 200th Anniversary of George Washington's birth, out of respect to his memory and military achievements, by War Department General Orders No. 3, dated 22 February 1932.

The criteria was announced in War Department circular dated 22 February 1932 and authorized award to soldiers, upon their request, who had been awarded the Meritorious Service Citation Certificate, Army Wound Ribbon, or were authorized to wear Wound Chevrons subsequent to 5 April 1917, the day before the United States entered World War I. The first Purple Heart was awarded to MacArthur.


George WashingtonDuring the early period of American involvement in World War II (7 December 1941-22 September 1943), the Purple Heart was awarded both for wounds received in action against the enemy and for meritorious performance of duty. With the establishment of the Legion of Merit, by an Act of Congress, the practice of awarding the Purple Heart for meritorious service was discontinued.

By Executive Order 9277, dated 3 December 1942, the decoration was extended to be applicable to all services and the order required that regulations of the Services be uniform in application as far as practicable. This executive order also authorized award only for wounds received.

Executive Order 10409, dated 12 February 1952, revised authorizations to include the Service Secretaries subject to approval of the Secretary of Defense.

Executive Order 11016, dated 25 April 1962, included provisions for posthumous award of the Purple Heart.

Executive Order 12464, dated 23 February 1984, authorized award of the Purple Heart as a result of terrorist attacks or while serving as part of a peacekeeping force subsequent to 28 March 1973.

The Senate approved an amendment to the 1985 Defense Authorization Bill on 13 June 1985 which changed the precedent from immediately above the Good Conduct Medal to immediately above the Meritorious Service Medals. Public Law 99-145 authorized the award for wounds received as a result of friendly fire. Public Law 104-106 expanded the eligibility date, authorizing award of the Purple Heart to a former prisoner of war who was wounded before 25 April 1962.

The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1998 (Public Law 105-85) changed the criteria to delete authorization for award of the Purple Heart Medal to any civilian national of the United States while serving under competent authority in any capacity with the Armed Forces. This change was effective 18 May 1998.


[edit] Criteria
This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards.
Please improve this article if you can (June 2007).

Paragraph 2-8, Army Regulation 600-8-22 (Military Awards) 25 February 1995

The Purple Heart was established by General George Washington at Newburgh, New York, on 7 August 1782, during the Revolutionary War. It was reestablished by the President of the United States per War Department General Orders 3, 1932 and is currently awarded pursuant to Executive Order 11016, 25 April 1962, Executive Order 12464, 23 February 1984 and Public Law 98-525, 19 October 1984.

A. The Purple Heart is awarded in the name of the President of the United States to any member of the Armed Forces of the United States who, while serving under competent authority in any capacity with one of the U.S. Armed Services after 5 April 1917, has been wounded or killed, or who has died or may hereafter die after being wounded-

1. In any action against an enemy of the United States.
2. In any action with an opposing armed force of a foreign country in which the Armed Forces of the United States are or have been engaged.
3. While serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party.
4. As a result of an act of any such enemy of opposing armed forces.
5. As the result of an act of any hostile foreign force
6. After 28 March 1973, as a result of an international terrorist attack against the United States or a foreign nation friendly to the United States, recognized as such an attack by the Secretary of the Army, or jointly by the Secretaries of the separate armed services concerned if persons from more than one service are wounded in the attack.
7. After 28 March 1973, as a result of military operations while serving outside the territory of the United States as part of a peacekeeping force.
B. While clearly an individual decoration, the Purple Heart differs from all other decorations in that an individual is not "recommended" for the decoration; rather he or she is entitled to it upon meeting specific criteria.

1. A Purple Heart is authorized for the first wound suffered under conditions indicated above, but for each subsequent award an Oak Leaf Cluster will be awarded to be worn on the medal or ribbon. Not more than one award will be made for more than one wound or injury received at the same instant or from the same missile, force, explosion, or agent.
2. A wound is defined as an injury to any part of the body from an outside force or agent sustained under one or more of the conditions listed above. A physical lesion is not required, however, the wound for which the award is made must have required treatment by a medical officer and records of medical treatment for wounds or injuries received in action must have been made a matter of official record.
3. When contemplating an award of this decoration, the key issue that commanders must take into consideration is the degree to which the enemy caused the injury. The fact that the proposed recipient was participating in direct or indirect combat operations is a necessary prerequisite, but is not sole justification for award.
4. Examples of enemy-related injuries which clearly justify award of the Purple Heart are as follows:
(a) Injury caused by enemy bullet, shrapnel, or other projectile created by enemy action.
(b) Injury caused by enemy placed mine or trap.
(c) Injury caused by enemy released chemical, biological, or nuclear agent.
(d) Injury caused by vehicle or aircraft accident resulting from enemy fire.
(e) Concussion injuries caused as a result of enemy generated explosions.
5. Examples of injuries or wounds which clearly do not qualify for award of the Purple Heart are as follows:
(a) Frostbite or trench foot injuries.
(b) Heat stroke.
(c) Food poisoning not caused by enemy agents.
(d) Chemical, biological, or nuclear agents not released by the enemy.
(e) Battle fatigue.
(f) Disease not directly caused by enemy agents.
(g) Accidents, to include explosive, aircraft, vehicular, and other accidental wounding not related to or caused by enemy action.
(h) Self-inflicted wounds, except when in the heat of battle, and not involving gross negligence.
(i) Post-traumatic stress disorders.
(j) Jump injuries not caused by enemy action.
6. It is not intended that such a strict interpretation of the requirement for the wound or injury to be caused by direct result of hostile action be taken that it would preclude the award being made to deserving personnel. Commanders must also take into consideration the circumstances surrounding an injury, even if it appears to meet the criteria. Note the following examples:
(a) In a case such as an individual injured while making a parachute landing from an aircraft that had been brought down by enemy fire; or, an individual injured as a result of a vehicle accident caused by enemy fire, the decision will be made in favor of the individual and the award will be made.
(b) Individuals wounded or killed as a result of "friendly fire" in the "heat of battle" will be awarded the Purple Heart as long as the "friendly" projectile or agent was released with the full intent of inflicting damage or destroying enemy troops or equipment.
(c) Individuals injured as a result of their own negligence; for example, driving or walking through an unauthorized area known to have been mined or placed off limits or searching for or picking up unexploded munitions as war souvenirs, will not be awarded the Purple Heart as they clearly were not injured as a result of enemy action, but rather by their own negligence.
C. A Purple Heart will be issued to the next of kin of each person entitled to a posthumous award. Issue will be made automatically by the Commanding General, PERSCOM, upon receiving a report of death indicating entitlement.

D. Upon written application to Commander, ARPERCEN, ATTN: DARP-VSE-A, 9700 Page Boulevard. St. Louis, MO 63132-5200, award may be made to any member of the Army, who during World War I, was awarded a Meritorious Service Citation Certificate signed by the Commander in Chief, American Expeditionary Forces, or who was authorized to wear wound chevrons. Posthumous awards to personnel who were killed or died of wounds after 5 April 1917 will be made to the appropriate next of kin upon application to the Commanding General, PERSCOM.

E. Any member of the Army who was awarded the Purple Heart for meritorious achievement or service, as opposed to wounds received in action, between 7 December 1941 and 22 September 1943, may apply for award of an appropriate decoration instead of the Purple Heart.

F. For those who became Prisoners of War after 25 April 1962, the Purple Heart will be awarded to individuals wounded while prisoners of foreign forces, upon submission by the individual to the Department of the U.S. Army of an affidavit that is supported by a statement from a witness, if this is possible. Documentation and inquiries should be directed to Commander, PERSCOM, ATTN: TAPC-PDA, Alexandria, VA 22332-0471.

G. Any member of the U.S. Army who believes that he or she is eligible for the Purple Heart, but through unusual circumstances no award was made, may submit an application through military channels, to Commander, PERSCOM, ATTN: TAPC PDA, Alexandria, VA 22332-0471. Application will include complete documentation, to include evidence of medical treatment, pertaining to the wound.

H. As noted above, the Purple Heart may be awarded to civilian nationals of the United States. These individuals must be serving under competent authority with the Army when wounded. Serving under competent authority with the Army will include those eligible persons who are employees of the U.S. Government in a duty (pay or official travel) status when wounds are sustained. Examples of eligible individuals are as follows:

1. Any Army employee who is traveling outside of the continental limits of the United States on PCS or temporary duty (TDY) aboard a commercial aircraft and wounded by international terrorists in an attempted or actual hijacking incident.
2. An Army employee in an Army office building performing his or her job who is wounded by an explosive device detonated by international terrorists.
3. A civil or foreign service employee from a U.S. Government Agency or Department attached to an Army element performing intelligence, counter-terrorist, or other duties with the Army wounded by international terrorists.
4. An Army employee wounded in an international terrorist incident in which a soldier or soldiers are also wounded.

[edit] Presentation procedures

[edit] Modern day presentations
Current active duty personnel are awarded the Purple Heart upon recommendation from their chain of command, stating the injury that was received and the action in which the service member was wounded. The award authority for the Purple Heart is normally at the level of an Army Brigade, Marine Corps Division, Air Force Wing, or Navy Task Force. While the award of the Purple Heart is considered automatic for all wounds received in combat, each award presentation must still be reviewed to ensure that the wounds received were as a result of enemy action.

Modern day Purple Heart presentations are recorded in both hardcopy and electronic service records. The annotation of the Purple Heart is denoted both with the service member's parent command and at the headquarters of the military service department. An original citation and award certificate are presented to the service member and filed in the field service record.


[edit] Unrecorded presentations
During the Vietnam War, Korean War, and World War II, the Purple Heart was often awarded "on or at the spot," with occasional entries made into service records, but this was often not the case. In addition, during the mass demobilizations that followed each of America's major wars of the 20th century, it was a common occurrence for the Purple Heart to be omitted from service records, due to clerical errors, once the service record was closed upon discharge.

An added complication is that a number of field commanders would engage in "bedside presentations" of the Purple Heart which would typically entail a general entering a hospital with a box of Purple Hearts, pinning them on the pillows of wounded service members, and then departing with no official records kept of the visit or the award of the Purple Heart. Service members, themselves, could complicate the issue by leaving hospitals unofficially, returning to their units in haste to rejoin a battle or to not appear as a malingerer. In such cases, even if a service member had received actual wounds in combat, both the award of the Purple Heart, as well as the entire visit to the hospital which treated the enemy wound, would never be recorded in official records.


[edit] Retroactive presentations
Service members requesting retroactive awards of the Purple Heart must normally apply through the National Personnel Records Center. Following a review of service records, those Army members so qualified are awarded the Purple Heart by the U.S. Army Human Resources Command in Alexandria, Virginia. Air Force veterans are awarded the Purple Heart by the Awards Office of Randolph Air Force Base while the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard presents Purple Hearts to veterans through the Navy Liaison Officer at the National Personnel Records Center.

Simple clerical errors, where a Purple Heart is denoted in military records but was simply omitted from a DD Form 214 (Report of Separation), are corrected on site at the National Personnel Records Center through issuance of a document known as a DD-215.


[edit] Retroactive requests
As the Purple Heart did not exist prior to 1932, records of the decoration are not annotated in service histories of those veterans who were wounded or killed by enemy action prior to the establishment of the medal. The Purple Heart, however, is retroactive to 1917 meaning that it may be presented to veterans as far back as the First World War. In such cases, service departments will review service histories and all available records to determine if a veteran may be retroactively awarded the Purple Heart.


[edit] Destroyed record requests
Due to the 1973 National Archives Fire, a large number of retroactive Purple Heart requests are difficult to verify since all records to substantiate the award may very well have been destroyed. As a solution to this, the National Personnel Records Center maintains a separate office to deal with Purple Heart requests where service records have been destroyed in the 1973 fire. In such cases, NPRC searches through unit records, military pay records, and records of the Department of Veterans Affairs. If a Purple Heart is warranted, all available alternate records sources are forwarded to the military service department for final determination of issuance.


[edit] Last resort requests
Some veterans who have exhausted all available sources, often still feel that they should be awarded a Purple Heart, even if there are no records of the decoration. In such cases, service members may appeal directly to the military service department by way of a Defense Department Form 149, which requests an official change to military records. Usually, if the 149 is denied by the service department, there is nothing more a veteran can do and will not be awarded the Purple Heart. In some cases, however, veterans have been recommended for the Purple Heart, after the fact, by a United States Senator or Congressman. Such cases are treated as brand new award recommendations and the process for presenting the Purple Heart begins again with a review of records and interview of witnesses to the action in which a service member was wounded.


[edit] Legal
Any false verbal, written or physical claim to the Purple Heart Medal, by an individual to whom it has not been awarded, is a federal felony offence punishable by up to a year in jail and up to a $10,000 fine.


[edit] See also
Police Purple Heart

[edit] Trivia
Trivia sections are discouraged under Wikipedia guidelines.
The article could be improved by integrating relevant items and removing inappropriate ones.

During World War II, nearly 500,000 Purple Heart medals were manufactured in anticipation of the casualties resulting from the abandoned invasion of Japan, Operation Downfall. However, all the American military casualties of the following sixty years, including the Korean, Vietnam War, and the Iraq War, appear to have exhausted this stockpile by 2007. [1]

The most Purple Hearts received by one person is eight. Six U.S. Army soldiers share that distinction:

Richard J. Buck - Four Purple Hearts in the Korean War and four in the Vietnam War
Robert T. Frederick - Eight Purple Hearts in World War II; also received two Distinguished Service Crosses
David H. Hackworth - Eight Purple Hearts in the Korean War and Vietnam War; also received two Distinguished Service Crosses and ten Silver Stars
Robert L. Howard - Eight Purple Hearts in the Vietnam War; also received the Medal of Honor
William L. Russell - Eight Purple Hearts in World War II; Silver Star
William Waugh - Eight Purple Hearts in the Vietnam War; also received the Silver Star.
In May 2006, a soldier made national headlines after giving his Purple Heart to a girl who had written many letters to troops. [2]

In May 2007, Vietnam veteran Jerrell Hudman announced that he planned to give one of his three Purple Hearts to George, a Jack Russell terrier. George died from injuries sustained when he saved a group of five children from being mauled by two pit bull terriers in New Zealand. [3]

[NuttyJim]

The 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault)—nicknamed the “Screaming Eagles”—is an airborne division of the United States Army primarily trained for air assault operations. During the Vietnam War, the 101st was redesignated an airmobile division, and later as an air assault division. For historical reasons, it keeps the identifier “airborne”, but does not conduct parachute operations at a division level. Many modern members of the 101st are graduates of the U.S. Army Air Assault School, and wear the Air Assault Badge, but it is not a prerequisite to be assigned to the division. The division is headquartered at Fort Campbell, Kentucky and has served in Iraq and Afghanistan. It is the only division in the U.S. Army that has two aviation brigades.

World War II

Eisenhower speaks with paratroops of the 502d Parachute Infantry Regiment, on the evening of June 5, 1944.
101st Airborne troops posing with a captured Nazi flag, 2 days after landing at NormandyThe division was activated on August 15, 1942 at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana. On August 19, 1942, its first commander, Major General William C. Lee, promised his new recruits that the 101st had a "rendezvous with destiny."

General Order Number Five, which gave birth to the division, reads:

The 101st Airborne Division, activated at Camp Claiborne, Louisiana, has no history, but it has a rendezvous with destiny. Like the early American pioneers whose invincible courage was the foundation stone of this nation, we have broken with the past and its traditions in order to establish our claim to the future.

Due to the nature of our armament, and the tactics in which we shall perfect ourselves, we shall be called upon to carry out operations of far-reaching military importance and we shall habitually go into action when the need is immediate and extreme.

Let me call your attention to the fact that our badge is the great American eagle. This is a fitting emblem for a division that will crush its enemies by falling upon them like a thunderbolt from the skies.

The history we shall make, the record of high achievement we hope to write in the annals of the American Army and the American people, depends wholly and completely on the men of this division. Each individual, each officer and each enlisted man, must therefore regard himself as a necessary part of a complex and powerful instrument for the overcoming of the enemies of the nation. Each, in his own job, must realize that he is not only a means, but an indispensable means for obtaining the goal of victory. It is, therefore, not too much to say that the future itself, in whose molding we expect to have our share, is in the hands of the soldiers of the 101st Airborne Division.

During World War II, the Pathfinders of the 101st Airborne Division led the way on D-Day in the night drop prior to the invasion. They left from RAF North Witham having trained there with the 82nd Airborne Division

On August 25, 1944 the division became part of the XVIII Airborne Corps in the First Allied Airborne Army. As part of this formation, the division took part in Operation Market Garden.

During the Battle of the Bulge the 101st, as one of the few forces available to contain the German advance was rushed forward by truck to defend the vital road junction of Bastogne. Famously, Brigadier General Anthony McAuliffe answered the German demand for surrender with the reply "To the German Commander: NUTS! -The American Commander" and the division fought on until the siege was lifted and the German advance halted.

On 1 August 1945, the 101st Airborne Division left Germany for Auxerre, France, to begin training for the invasion of Japan. When Japan surrendered two weeks later, the operation became unnecessary. The 101st deactivated on 30 November at Auxerre.

For their efforts during World War II, the 101st Airborne Division was awarded four campaign streamers and two Presidential Unit Citations. The division suffered 1,766 Killed In Action; 6,388 Wounded In Action; and 324 Died of Wounds during World War II.


[edit] Units

101st Airborne troops retrieving air dropped supplies during the siege of Bastogne.Division Headquarters
501st Parachute Infantry Regiment, attached 1 May 1944 – past 9 May 1945
502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment
506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, assigned 1 March 1945, previously attached 15 September 1943 - 1 March 1945
327th Glider Infantry Regiment
401st Glider Infantry Regiment, disbanded 1 March 1945 in France; assets to 327th GIR
HHB, Division Artillery
321st Glider Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
463rd Parachute Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
907th Glider Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
377th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion (75mm)
81st Airborne Antiaircraft Battalion
326th Airborne Engineer Battalion
326th Airborne Medical Company
101st Parachute Maintenance Company
101st Signal Company
101st Counter Intelligence Corps Detachment
Headquarters, Special Troops
801st Airborne Ordnance Maintenance Company
426th Airborne Quartermaster Company
Headquarters Company, 101st Airborne Division
Military Police Platoon
Reconnaissance Platoon
Band (assigned in 1 Mar 45 reorganization)
Source: Order of Battle: U.S. Army World War II by Shelby Stanton, Presidio Press, 1984.


[edit] Helmet insignia
The 101st is distinctive partly by their helmet decorations. The soldiers used card suits (diamonds, spades, hearts, and clubs) to indicate the regiment to which they belonged.

These insignias were first seen in World War II, and can still be seen on 101st Division soldiers today.
327th: Clubs (♣)
501st: Diamonds (♦) (Currently 1st Battalion, 501st Infantry Regiment is part of the 4th Brigade (ABN), 25th Infantry Division in Alaska.)
502nd: Hearts (♥)
506th: Spades (♠)
187th: Torii (Presently used; not during World War II, when the 187th Infantry Regiment was part of the 11th Airborne Division.)

[edit] Reactivation

Paratroopers from the 101st escorting students into Little Rock High School in ArkansasThe 101st Airborne Division was reactivated as a training unit at Camp Breckinridge, Kentucky, in 1948 and again in 1950. It was reactivated again in 1954 at Fort Jackson, South Carolina, and in March 1956, the 101st was transferred, less personnel and equipment, to Fort Campbell, Kentucky, to be reorganized as a combat division. In place of its World War II structure that featured regiments, the 101st was reactivated as a "pentomic" division with five battle groups in place of regiments and battalions. The reorganization was in place by late April 1957 and the division's battle groups were:

2nd Airborne Battle Group, 187th Infantry
1st Airborne Battle Group, 327th Infantry
1st Airborne Battle Group, 501st Infantry
1st Airborne Battle Group, 502nd Infantry
1st Airborne Battle Group, 506th Infantry
Division artillery consisted of the following units:

Battery D, 319th Artillery (Abn)
Battery A, 321st Artillery (Abn)
Battery B, 321st Artillery (Abn)
Battery C, 321st Artillery (Abn)
Battery A, 377th Artillery (Abn)
Other supporting units were also assigned.


[edit] Civil rights
From September through November 1957 elements of the division's 1st Airborne Battle Group, 327th Infantry (bearing the lineage of the old Company A, 327th Glider Infantry Regiment) were deployed to Little Rock, Arkansas, by President Dwight D. Eisenhower to enforce Federal court orders during the Little Rock Crisis.


[edit] Vietnam War

Men of the 1st Brigade, 101st Airborne Division, fire from old Viet Cong trenches.In the mid-1960s, the 1st Brigade and support troops were deployed to the Republic of Vietnam, followed by the rest of the division in late 1967. In almost seven years of combat in Vietnam, elements of the 101st participated in 15 campaigns. Notable among these were the Battle of Hamburger Hill in 1969 and Firebase Ripcord in 1970. The 101st was deployed in the northern I Corps region operating against the NVA infiltration routes through Laos and the A Shau Valley. Elements of the division supported the ARVN Operation Lam Son 719, the invasion of southern Laos, in 1971, but only aviation units actually entered Laos. In the seven years that all or part of the division served in Vietnam it suffered 4,011 Killed In Action and 18,259 Wounded In Action.

It has been said that most North Vietnamese had never seen a bald eagle, so they called the 101st soldiers "Chicken Men" or "Rooster Men." Viet Cong commanders would regularly include in their briefings that they were to avoid confrontation with the "Chicken Men" at all costs, as they were sure to lose. Supposedly this remained a source of fierce pride among veterans who served in Vietnam under the 101st.[1]

Such claims must be balanced against the reality of combat losses. Casualties for the 101st in Viet Nam were twice those suffered in World War II, and its total number of Killed in Action (4,022) was the third highest of all U.S. Army ground units, behind the 1st Cavalry Division (5,464) and the 25th Infantry Division (4,561). Had the entire division arrived in 1965, as did the 1st Cav and 25th, its total casualties would have undoubtedly been even higher.


[edit] Post-Vietnam

A member of the 101st Airborne Division, armed with an M60 machine gun, participates in a field exercise in 1972. M16A1 rifle in background with each soldier wearing a M1 HelmetIn 1968, the 101st took on the structure and equipment of an airmobile division. In 1974, the training of the 101st was recognized with the creation of the Air Assault Badge, now a service wide badge of the United States Army. At the same time the division was renamed 101st Airborne (Air Assault) after a reorganization of the division where one brigade was airborne qualified and the remaining two brigades were airmobile. Before the reorganization, non Airborne qualified division soldiers were not allowed to wear the 'Airborne' tab but after the renaming all soldiers wore the Airborne tab. In 1974 soldiers of the division wore a blue beret but the headgear was later banned following a purge of non regulation headgear that the 1970s All-Volunteer Army brought in to encourage unit morale. The division also was authorized to wear a full color (white eagle) shoulder patch insignia instead of the subdued green eagle shoulder patch that was worn as a combat patch by soldiers who fought with the 101st in Vietnam.

Tragedy struck the division on December 12, 1985. A civilian aircraft, Arrow Air Flight 1285, chartered to transport some of the division from peacekeeping duty with the Multinational Force Observers on the Sinai Peninsula to Kentucky, crashed near Gander, Newfoundland. All eight air crew members and 248 US servicemen died, most were from the 3d Battalion, 502d Infantry. The crash was the worst in Canadian aviation history. President Ronald Reagan and his wife Nancy travelled to Fort Campbell to comfort grieving family members. Then on March 8, 1988, tragedy befell the 101st again when two U.S. Army helicopters collided in Fort Campbell, Kentucky, killing 17 servicemen.


[edit] Persian Gulf War
In January 1991, the 101st once again had its "Rendezvous with Destiny" in Iraq during the combat air assault into enemy territory. The 101st sustained no soldiers killed in action during the 100-hour war and captured thousands of enemy prisoners of war. General Richard A. Cody, then lieutenant colonel, commander of the 1st Battalion, 101st Aviation Regiment, fired the first shots of the war [citations needed] from his AH-64 Apache.

The division has supported humanitarian relief efforts in Rwanda and Somalia, then later supplied peacekeepers to Haiti and Bosnia.

^ Straub, Bill. "101st Airborne Division has storied past", Scripps Howard News Service, 2003-04-09. Retrieved on 2007-05-21.

[edit] Montana Forest Fires
In August and September of 2000, the 3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment, 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) from Fort Campbell, Kentucky, helped fight fires on the Bitterroot National Forest in Montana. Designated Task Force Battle Force and commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Jon C. Lehr, the battalion fought fires on the Valley Complex near Darby, Montana.

Reference: Military Support in Wildland Fire Suppression 1988 - 2003, National Interagency Fire Center, http://www.nifc.gov/pres_visit/military.html


[edit] Operation Enduring Freedom

Rakkasans of the 187th Infantry Regiment return from Operation Anaconda in Afghanistan.The 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault) was the first conventional unit to deploy in support of the American War on Terrorism.[citation needed] The Division quickly deployed its 3rd Brigade "Rakkasans" as the first conventional unit to fight as part of Operation Enduring Freedom.[citation needed] After an intense period of combat in rugged Shoh-I-Khot Mountains of eastern Afghanistan during Operation Anaconda, the Rakkasans redeployed to Fort Campbell only to find the 101st awaiting another deployment order.


[edit] Operation Iraqi Freedom

3rd Battalion, 327th Infantry Regiment alongside Task Force 20 at Uday and Qusay Hussein's hideout.In 2003, Major General David H. Petraeus ("Eagle 6") led the Screaming Eagles to war during the 2003 invasion of Iraq (Operation Iraqi Freedom). General Petraeus led the division into Iraq saying, "Guidons, Guidons. This is Eagle 6. The 101st Airborne Division's next Rendezvous with Destiny is North to Baghdad. Op-Ord Desert Eagle 2 is now in effect. Godspeed. Air Assault. Out." The division was in V Corps, providing support to the 3rd Infantry Division by clearing Iraqi strongpoints which that division had bypassed. The Division then went on to a tour of duty as part